Description: technologyComment of cobalt production (GLO): Cobalt, as a co-product of nickel and copper production, is obtained using a wide range of technologies. The initial life cycle stage covers the mining of the ore through underground or open cast methods. The ore is further processed in beneficiation to produce a concentrate and/or raffinate solution. Metal selection and further concentration is initiated in primary extraction, which may involve calcining, smelting, high pressure leaching, and other processes. The final product is obtained through further refining, which may involve processes such as re-leaching, selective solvent / solution extraction, selective precipitation, electrowinning, and other treatments. Transport is reported separately and consists of only the internal movements of materials / intermediates, and not the movement of final product. Due to its intrinsic value, cobalt has a high recycling rate. However, much of this recycling takes place downstream through the recycling of alloy scrap into new alloy, or goes into the cobalt chemical sector as an intermediate requiring additional refinement. Secondary production, ie production from the recycling of cobalt-containing wastes, is considered in this study in so far as it occurs as part of the participating companies’ production. This was shown to be of very limited significance (less than 1% of cobalt inputs). The secondary materials used for producing cobalt are modelled as entering the system free of environmental burden. technologyComment of natural gas production (CA-AB): Canadian data completed with german data. The uncertainty has been adjusted accordingly. Data used in original data contains no information on technology. technologyComment of natural gas production (DE): Data in environmental report contains no information on technology. technologyComment of natural gas production (RoW): The data describes an average onshore technology for natural gas to 13% out of combined oil gas production. Natural gas is assumed to 20% sour. Leakage in exploitation is estimated at 0.38% and production 0.12%. It is further assumed that about 30% of the produced water is discharged in surface water. Water emissions are differentiated between combined oil and gas production and gas production. technologyComment of natural gas production (RU): The data describes an average onshore technology for natural gas with a share of 4% out of combined oil gas production and 96% from mere natural gas production. Natural gas is assumed to 20% sour. It is assumed that about 30% of the produced water is discharged in surface water. Water emissions are differentiated between combined oil and gas production and gas production. technologyComment of natural gas production (US): US data (NREL) for emissions completed with german data. Emissions from NREL include combined production (petroleumm and gas) and off-shore production. The uncertainty has been adjusted accordingly. Data used in original data contains no information on technology. technologyComment of petroleum refinery operation (CH): Average data for the used technology. technologyComment of primary zinc production from concentrate (RoW): The technological representativeness of this dataset is considered to be high as smelting methods for zinc are consistent in all regions. Refined zinc produced pyro-metallurgically represents less than 5% of global zinc production and less than 2% of this dataset. Electrometallurgical Smelting The main unit processes for electrometallurgical zinc smelting are roasting, leaching, purification, electrolysis, and melting. In both electrometallurgical and pyro-metallurgical zinc production routes, the first step is to remove the sulfur from the concentrate. Roasting or sintering achieves this. The concentrate is heated in a furnace with operating temperature above 900 °C (exothermic, autogenous process) to convert the zinc sulfide to calcine (zinc oxide). Simultaneously, sulfur reacts with oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide, which is subsequently converted to sulfuric acid in acid plants, usually located with zinc-smelting facilities. During the leaching process, the calcine is dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid solution (re-circulated back from the electrolysis cells) to produce aqueous zinc sulfate solution. The iron impurities dissolve as well and are precipitated out as jarosite or goethite in the presence of calcine and possibly ammonia. Jarosite and goethite are usually disposed of in tailing ponds. Adding zinc dust to the zinc sulfate solution facilitates purification. The purification of leachate leads to precipitation of cadmium, copper, and cobalt as metals. In electrolysis, the purified solution is electrolyzed between lead alloy anodes and aluminum cathodes. The high-purity zinc deposited on aluminum cathodes is stripped off, dried, melted, and cast into SHG zinc ingots (99.99 % zinc). Pyro-metallurgical Smelting The pyro-metallurgical smelting process is based on the reduction of zinc and lead oxides into metal with carbon in an imperial smelting furnace. The sinter, along with pre-heated coke, is charged from the top of the furnace and injected from below with pre-heated air. This ensures that temperature in the center of the furnace remains in the range of 1000-1500 °C. The coke is converted to carbon monoxide, and zinc and lead oxides are reduced to metallic zinc and lead. The liquid lead bullion is collected at the bottom of the furnace along with other metal impurities (copper, silver, and gold). Zinc in vapor form is collected from the top of the furnace along with other gases. Zinc vapor is then condensed into liquid zinc. The lead and cadmium impurities in zinc bullion are removed through a distillation process. The imperial smelting process is an energy-intensive process and produces zinc of lower purity than the electrometallurgical process. technologyComment of rare earth oxides production, from rare earth oxide concentrate, 70% REO (CN-SC): This dataset refers to the separation (hydrochloric acid leaching) and refining (metallothermic reduction) process used in order to produce high-purity rare earth oxides (REO) from REO concentrate, 70% beneficiated. ''The concentrate is calcined at temperatures up to 600ºC to oxidize carbonaceous material. Then HCl leaching, alkaline treatment, and second HCl leaching is performed to produce a relatively pure rare earth chloride (95% REO). Hydrochloric acid leaching in Sichuan is capable of separating and recovering the majority of cerium oxide (CeO) in a short process. For this dataset, the entire quantity of Ce (50% cerium dioxide [CeO2]/REO) is assumed to be produced here as CeO2 with a grade of 98% REO. Foreground carbon dioxide CO2 emissions were calculated from chemical reactions of calcining beneficiated ores. Then metallothermic reduction produces the purest rare earth metals (99.99%) and is most common for heavy rare earths. The metals volatilize, are collected, and then condensed at temperatures of 300 to 400°C (Chinese Ministryof Environmental Protection 2009).'' Source: Lee, J. C. K., & Wen, Z. (2017). Rare Earths from Mines to Metals: Comparing Environmental Impacts from China's Main Production Pathways. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 21(5), 1277-1290. doi:10.1111/jiec.12491 technologyComment of scandium oxide production, from rare earth tailings (CN-NM): See general comment. technologyComment of sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation (Europe without Switzerland): The technology level in Europe applied here represents a weighted average of BREF types II (62%), III (29%), IV (9%) refineries; API 35; sulfur content 1.03%. technologyComment of sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation (PE): The technology represents BREF type II refinery; API 25; sulfur content 0.51% technologyComment of sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation (BR): The technology represents BREF type II refinery; API 25; sulfur content 0.57% technologyComment of sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation (ZA): The technology represents a weighted average of BREF types II and III refineries; API 35; sulfur content 0.7% technologyComment of sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation (CO): The technology represents a weighted average of BREF types II and IV refineries; API 35; sulfur content 0.56% technologyComment of sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation (IN): The technology represents a weighted average of BREF types II and IV refineries; API 35; sulfur content 1.39% technologyComment of sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation (RoW): This dataset represents the prevailing technology level in Europe, this is a weighted average of BREF complexity types II (62%), III (29%), IV (9%) refineries (see BREF document, European Commission, 2015); API 35; sulfur content 1.03%. Reference(s): European Commission (2015) Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document (BREF) for the Refining of Mineral Oil and Gas, Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU Integrated Pollution Prevention and control, accessible online at http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/reference/BREF/REF_BREF_2015.pdf, February 2019 technologyComment of synthetic fuel production, from coal, high temperature Fisher-Tropsch operations (ZA): SECUNDA SYNFUEL OPERATIONS: Secunda Synfuels Operations operates the world’s only commercial coal-based synthetic fuels manufacturing facility of its kind, producing synthesis gas (syngas) through coal gasification and natural gas reforming. They make use of their proprietary technology to convert syngas into synthetic fuel components, pipeline gas and chemical feedstock for the downstream production of solvents, polymers, comonomers and other chemicals. Primary internal customers are Sasol Chemicals Operations, Sasol Exploration and Production International and other chemical companies. Carbon is produced for the recarburiser, aluminium, electrode and cathodic production markets. Secunda Synfuels Operations receives coal from five mines in Mpumalanga (see figure attached). After being crushed, the coal is blended to obtain an even quality distribution. Electricity is generated by both steam and gas and used to gasify the coal at a temperature of 1300°C. This produces syngas from which two types of reactor - circulating fluidised bed and Sasol Advanced SynthoTM reactors – produce components for making synthetic fuels as well as a number of downstream chemicals. Gas water and tar oil streams emanating from the gasification process are refined to produce ammonia and various grades of coke respectively. imageUrlTagReplacea79dc0c2-0dda-47ec-94e0-6f076bc8cdb6 SECUNDA CHEMICAL OPERATIONS: The Secunda Chemicals Operations hub forms part of the Southern African Operations and is the consolidation of all the chemical operating facilities in Secunda, along with Site Services activities. The Secunda Chemicals hub produces a diverse range of products that include industrial explosives, fertilisers; polypropylene, ethylene and propylene; solvents (acetone, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), ethanol, n-Propanol, iso-propanol, SABUTOL-TM, PROPYLOL-TM, mixed C3 and C4 alcohols, mixed C5 and C6 alcohols, High Purity Ethanol, and Ethyl Acetate) as well as the co-monomers, 1-hexene, 1-pentene and 1-octene and detergent alcohol (SafolTM).
Types:
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Comment: This is a market activity. Each market represents the consumption mix of a product in a given geography, connecting suppliers with consumers of the same product in the same geographical area. Markets group the producers and also the imports of the product (if relevant) within the same geographical area. They also account for transport to the consumer and for the losses during that process, when relevant. This is the market for 'sulfur', in the Global geography. This is a constrained market for consequential system model, for attributional system models, this is a regular market. In the case of consequential system model, details about the marginal consumer can be found in the comment of the conditional exchange (by-product). This dataset represents the supply of 1 kg of sulfur from activities that produce it within the geography of this dataset. In this market, expert judgement was used to develop product-specific transport distance estimations based on the default transport distances for markets, provided in the 'Default Transport Assumptions' file available on the ecoinvent website (https://www.ecoinvent.org/support/documents-and-files/documents-and-files.html). See exchange comments for additional details. This is a constrained market. The justification for a market constraint is included in the comment field of the conditional exchange. 'sulfur' is an inorganic substance with a CAS no. : 007704-34-9. It is called 'sulfur' under IUPAC naming and its molecular formula is: S. It is solid under normal conditions of temperature and pressure and appears in powder form with no distinct odour. The substance is modelled as a pure substance. On a consumer level, is used in the following products: explosives, fertilisers and plant protection products. On industrial sites, the substance is used for the manufacture of products in the following sectors: formulation of mixtures and/or re-packaging. This substance is used for the manufacture of: chemicals and rubber products. This market is supplied by the following activities with the given share: sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation, BR: 0.00940809213546258 natural gas production, CA-AB: 0.0553626470093511 scandium oxide production, from rare earth tailings, CN-NM: 0.000340323304586066 natural gas production, DE: 0.0169103927886063 natural gas production, RU: 0.135917480374989 natural gas production, US: 0.0247854507541673 sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation, CO: 0.000733553907745875 sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation, Europe without Switzerland: 0.0721917633498201 sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation, IN: 0.0510244732465918 sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation, PE: 0.000964435042033051 sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation, ZA: 0.00123532144028011 synthetic fuel production, from coal, high temperature Fisher-Tropsch operations, ZA: 0.00388245655857059 sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation, RoW: 0.337869321507422 natural gas production, RoW: 0.287208836716232 primary zinc production from concentrate, RoW: 0.00197569467662753 cobalt production, GLO: 0.000112702075631483 rare earth oxides production, from rare earth oxide concentrate, 70% REO, CN-SC: 2.11831402175018e-06 petroleum refinery operation, CH: 7.49367978613602e-05 generalComment of cobalt production (GLO): This dataset represents the production of cobalt by the global cobalt industry. Reference: "The Environmental Performance of Refined Cobalt - Life Cycle Inventory and Life Cycle Assessment of Refined Cobalt - Summary Report", CDI & ERM, Novermber 2016. PM2.5-10 and PM10 emissions to air arise from mine ventillation systems. generalComment of natural gas production (RoW): Data for RU is mostly based on standard data, as only few information on the Russian production is available. [This dataset was already contained in the ecoinvent database version 2. It was not individually updated during the transfer to ecoinvent version 3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment results may still have changed, as they are affected by changes in the supply chain, i.e. in other datasets. This dataset was generated following the ecoinvent quality guidelines for version 2. It may have been subject to central changes described in the ecoinvent version 3 change report (http://www.ecoinvent.org/database/ecoinvent-version-3/reports-of-changes/), and the results of the central updates were reviewed extensively. The changes added e.g. consistent water flows and other information throughout the database. The documentation of this dataset can be found in the ecoinvent reports of version 2, which are still available via the ecoinvent website. The change report linked above covers all central changes that were made during the conversion process.] generalComment of natural gas production (DE): The average amount of gas flared in Germany in the past three years was 0.0013 m3/m3 according to WEG. NMVOC are broken down according to the parts of ethane, butane etc. in gas as in Frischknecht et al. 1996, Tab. V.3.3. [This dataset was already contained in the ecoinvent database version 2. It was not individually updated during the transfer to ecoinvent version 3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment results may still have changed, as they are affected by changes in the supply chain, i.e. in other datasets. This dataset was generated following the ecoinvent quality guidelines for version 2. It may have been subject to central changes described in the ecoinvent version 3 change report (http://www.ecoinvent.org/database/ecoinvent-version-3/reports-of-changes/), and the results of the central updates were reviewed extensively. The changes added e.g. consistent water flows and other information throughout the database. The documentation of this dataset can be found in the ecoinvent reports of version 2, which are still available via the ecoinvent website. The change report linked above covers all central changes that were made during the conversion process.] generalComment of natural gas production (RU): This dataset represents the extraction of natural gas in the Russian Federation. Data stems from annual reports of oil and gas producers (Gazprom, Novatek, Likoil, Rusneft) and national GHG inventory (UNFCC). generalComment of natural gas production (CA-AB): This dataset represents the production of natural gas on-shore in Alberta (Canada) in 2010. Some flows have been adapted using local data, namely, the emissions to air of greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O), the criteria air contaminants (PM2.5, CO, non-methane VOC, NOx, SO2) and the hydrogen sulfide. Local data have also been used for the percentage of sour and sweet gas and the quantities of flared, vented and burned in turbine gas, quantity of sulfur extracted by sweetening and production volumes. Sweetening and drying processes have been included in the process.Sulfur production associated with the desulfurisation process has been included.The sweetening process, included in the dataset, delivers sweet gas (natural gas, propane), sulfur and other gases (ethene, butane, pentane). This dataset is an adaptation of the dataset describing the average extraction onshore in Germany in 1996-2000 period and the drying and sweetening datasets from the ecoinvent 2.0 database. [This is a dataset transferred from ecoSpold v1 / ecoinvent database version 2. It may not in all aspects fulfill the requirements of the ecoinvent data quality guideline for version 3.] generalComment of natural gas production (US): This dataset represents the production of natural gas on-shore in the United States in 2010. The datasets describes the extraction and the transformation processes, including sweetening. This dataset was already contained in the ecoinvent database version 2 but it has been adapted to split RNA into US and CA. It is based on NREL data ("Natural gas, at extraction site" and "Natural gas, processed, at plant" NREL 2007) and replaces the "natural gas production, RNA" dataset (as more specific data were available for canadian produciton). NREL data are split in extraction and processing but they have been joint to keep the same structure as other natural gas datasets in the database. Some flows have been extrapolated from the natural gas production in Germany. These data describe the gas production in US in general, so some flows may be over-estimated. [This dataset was already contained in the ecoinvent database version 2. It was not individually updated during the transfer to ecoinvent version 3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment results may still have changed, as they are affected by changes in the supply chain, i.e. in other datasets. This dataset was generated following the ecoinvent quality guidelines for version 2. It may have been subject to central changes described in the ecoinvent version 3 change report (http://www.ecoinvent.org/database/ecoinvent-version-3/reports-of-changes/), and the results of the central updates were reviewed extensively. The changes added e.g. consistent water flows and other information throughout the database. The documentation of this dataset can be found in the ecoinvent reports of version 2, which are still available via the ecoinvent website. The change report linked above covers all central changes that were made during the conversion process.] [This dataset was already contained in the ecoinvent database version 2. It was not individually updated during the transfer to ecoinvent version 3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment results may still have changed, as they are affected by changes in the supply chain, i.e. in other datasets. This dataset was generated following the ecoinvent quality guidelines for version 2. It may have been subject to central changes described in the ecoinvent version 3 change report (http://www.ecoinvent.org/database/ecoinvent-version-3/reports-of-changes/), and the results of the central updates were reviewed extensively. The changes added e.g. consistent water flows and other information throughout the database. The documentation of this dataset can be found in the ecoinvent reports of version 2, which are still available via the ecoinvent website. The change report linked above covers all central changes that were made during the conversion process.] generalComment of petroleum refinery operation (CH): Description of all flows of materials and energy due to the throughput of 1kg crude oil in the refinery. The multioutput-process 'crude oil, in refinery' delivers the co-products petrol, unleaded, bitumen, diesel, light fuel oil, heavy fuel oil, kerosene, naphtha, propane/ butane, refinery gas, secondary sulphur and electricity. The impacts of processing are allocated to the different products. This dataset is modeled as a combined production of 8 reference products in ecoinvent version 3. The distribution of the remaining flows over the reference products is based on the original distribution of the flows as described in the ecoinvent report 6-IV "Erdoel", 2007 unless otherwise specified here. generalComment of primary zinc production from concentrate (RoW): The multi-output "primary zinc production from concentrate" process includes all steps required to produce special high grade zinc from zinc concentrate using the electrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical (less common) processes. Electrometallurgical zinc smelting includes roasting, leaching, purification, electrolysis, melting, and sulfur dioxide gas treatment. Pyrometallurgical zinc smelting includes sintering, leaching, refining, and sulfur dioxide gas treatment. The dataset describes the production of zinc and additional co-products, primarily sulfuric acid. Data is based on a study undertaken by the International Zinc Association (IZA) in conjunction with thinkstep (the LCA practitioner) for reference year 2012. Participating companies provided annual primary data on inputs and outputs for each process step, which was aggregated into a single production-weighted dataset. The below images present the system boundary in relation to the primary product, special high grade zinc. imageUrlTagReplacec1fef210-e0fd-48fd-9cea-351f6a190ca8 imageUrlTagReplace27d4da96-9dfb-45d5-ac34-9f40810abac8 generalComment of rare earth oxides production, from rare earth oxide concentrate, 70% REO (CN-SC): For the separation and refining of rare earth oxides in the Sichuan region of China. This dataset is based on the following publication: Arshi, P. S., Vahidi, E., & Zhao, F. (2018). Behind the Scenes of Clean Energy: The Environmental Footprint of Rare Earth Products. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 6(3), 3311-3320. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b03484 and the critical materials life cycle assessment tool (CMLCAT) of Arshi et al. (2018), provided by F. Zhao from Purdue University. Specific modifications were made in order to make the dataset more transparent. Background: Metals are produced as part of a complex, highly interconnected and interdependent system, with many desirable but scarce/critical metals recovered as by-products during the production of one or more ‘host’ metal(s). Currently, mining and processing of rare earth elements is predominantly carried out in China, where they are extracted mainly via open pit mining of bastnäsite and/or monazite deposits or the leaching of ion-adsorption clays. Modelling approach: This dataset was created using the critical materials life cycle assessment tool (CMLCAT) of Arshi et al. (2018). generalComment of scandium oxide production, from rare earth tailings (CN-NM): This dataset refers to the beneficiation and smelting activities in order to produce 1 kg of Scandium oxide (Sc2O3), with purity greater than 99.9% from rare earth tailings in the Bayan obo mines in the Baotou region of China. The rare earth tailings are produced as a byproduct from the mining and beneficiation activities of the REE-Nb-Fe ore at the same location. China is top producer of Scandium, being responsible for 90% of the global scandium production (Source: https://www.scandiummining.com/site/assets/files/5740/scandium-white-paperemc-website-june-2014-.pdf). Today, scandium is produced either as a co-product of other primary metal projects or is extracted out of old tailings from depleted mining projects where the specific process happened to concentrate scandium levels. (Source: https://www.scandiummining.com/scandium/scandium-faq/). This dataset is based on the publication of Wang et al (2020) (reference 1). The boundaries of the system have been expanded in order to include the processing of fluorite coarse ore that is produced as a byproduct during the scandium oxide production, due to the fact that there was no available proxy for the ore in Ecoinvent, The processing produces fluorite concentrate which was represented as fluorspar which exists in Ecoinvent. The data for the processing of fluorite was taken from Wang et al 2019 (reference 2 – consult the respective exchange comment). Due to lack of data regarding the data acquisition time, the dataset generator has relied on the previous work of the same author that dealt with the production of scandium concentrate from the Bayan Obo tailings (see reference 2 –data coverage until the beneficiation stage). Wang et al 2019 mentions that the data were acquired during 2014-2018. Therefore, because the data is recent, the dataset is assumed valid from 2018 until 2022 (5 years). Furthermore, the electricity is taken from the grid, meaning that all upstream inputs and outputs are already taken into account. Finally, the steam is generated from coal burning. For further information, consult the sampling procedure and the individual exchange comments. Reference 1: Wang, L., Wang, P., Chen, W.-Q., Wang, Q.-Q., & Lu, H.-S. (2020). Environmental Impacts of Scandium Oxide Production from Rare Earths Tailings of Bayan Obo Mine. Journal of Cleaner Produc-tion, 122464. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122464 Reference 2: Wang, L., Jiao, G., Lu, H., & Wang, Q. (2019). Life cycle assessment of integrated exploitation technology for tailings in Bayan Obo Mine, China. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, 17, 4343-4359. doi:10.15666/aeer/1702_43434359 This dataset includes the beneficiation stage and the smelting stage, including 5 major processes and 22 sub-processes. The first stage consists of 3 separation steps (i.e first separation, secondary separation, and final separation), during which scandium is separated and concentrated to produce Scandium (Sc) concentrate for the smelting stage. During the smelting stage – consisting of metallurgy and purification processes – Sc oxide is extracted from the concentrate to produce high-purity (>99.9%) Sc2O3. Beneficiation stage: The beneficiation stage is comprised of the first, secondary and final separation. During the first separation, the remaining iron and rare earth elements (REEs) are separated from the REE tailings, through the sub-processes of iron separation, REE separation). Afterwards, bulk flotation is applied to the remaining tailings, dividing them into mixed foam and mixed grit, in order to separate easily flotating and iron-silicate minerals and reduce the difficulty of the next recycling. The mixed foam separates fluorite and the mixed grit, containing approximately 0.02-0.03% scandium. Then the mix grit goes to the secondary separation (including the sub-processes of sulfur flotation (I), iron separation (II), gravity concentration, sulfur flotation (II), and Fe separation (III) in order to separate the sulfur and the remaining iron (byproducts) and thus further enrich the scandium. Sulfur flotation (I) and further iron separation is necessary in order to decrease the difficulty of Niobium (Nb) separation. Then gravity separation is performed in order to isolate the gangue materials from the grit, and simplify the Nb separation. At this point, the original tailings have been reduced to concentrates and Scandium-enriched remaining tailings (with 0.02-0.03% Sc content). The concentrates undergo again sulfur flotation (I) and iron separation (II) to further separate iron and sulfur and -as a result- further enrich the scandium in the remaining tailings, reaching a content of 0.03-0.04% Sc. After the first and secondary separation, iron, sulfur and REEs have been completely separated and the remaining valuable elements to be extracted from the tailings contain Nb and Sc. Nb separation is performed first, because of the Sc existence in silicate materials. Pyroxene and amphibole (silicate minerals) are recycled by a strong magnetic separation process and divided from the Nb tailings and gravity concentration tailings, producing high-quality Sc concentrates (approximately 0.05% Sc content). The concentrates are then fed to the smelting stage for the production of high purity Sc2O3. Smelting stage: The smelting stage consists of the metallurgy and the purification process. The metallurgy step incorporates the processes of concentration, ore grinding, and pressure filtration (physical extraction), normal acid leaching, pressure acid leaching, and extraction. The Sc concentrates produced from the beneficiation step are further concentrated and the residues are grinded (particle size reach 200-325 mesh) to the output rate. Pressure filtration separates the solid and liquid containing Scandium. After that, (normal and pressurized) acid leaching is applied to extract the Scandium-containing substance (20-30% Sc content) from the acid leaching solution, which goes to the purification process, which includes 6 sub-processes: Ti cleaning, Fe cleaning, back extraction, purification, oxalic acid precipitation, and calcination. At first, residual titanium and iron are removed first to avoid impacting the further purification sub-processes. The ideal cleaning rate can be attained by applying high number of washing steps (i.e. 20). However too much washing can potentially lead to significant scandium losses. Then, the addition of sodium hydroxide within the Sc-containing solution produces a soda cake, containing Nb and Sc. Subsequently, niobium and scandium oxide are produced from filter cake and filtrate respectively, which are created through purification of the soda cake, after the addition of hydrochloric acid solution. Excessive addition of oxalic acid to the filtrate produces scandium oxalate precipitates, which are later burned at a temperature of 800°C in order to produce high-purity (>99.9%) scandium oxide (Sc2O3). generalComment of sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation (Europe without Switzerland): This dataset describes the operation of a representative average petroleum oil refinery in the given geography. Since petroleum refineries are very complex the actual unit process modeling is done in a separate refinery tool, developed by ifeu (Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, Heidelberg, Germany) and this is a subdivided product-specific dataset. The ifeu petroleum refinery life cycle inventory (LCI) tool is based on the outputs of a complex refinery model that reproduces the complexity of petroleum refinery plants in which the combination and sequence of processes are usually very specific to the characteristics of the raw materials (i.e. the close relation between the composition of the crude oil and the products to be produced). Refineries differ not only in their configurations, process integration, feedstocks, product mixes, unit sizes, designs, and control systems but also the market situations, locations and ages of the refinery or environmental regulations can result in a wide variety of refinery concepts. It represents the current European state-of-the-art. The basic setting of the model reflects the technical characteristics of European refineries as described in the Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document (BREF)for the Refining of Mineral Oil and Gas (European Commission, 2015). Further specific data was collected from companies and production plants and was incorporated in order to elaborate a comprehensive and robust model of a refinery. The BREF (European Commission, 2015) contains not only aggregated numbers or weighted averages of emission and energy or water consumptions, but also encompasses primary data of the majority of refineries in Europe in anonymous form. This data source has been complemented by various specific confidential refinery datasets, by values from Eurostat (e.g. in the case of the energy source mix or process energy), and by literature data. In the case of the BREF, a range of values were mentioned as process parameters for which the arithmetic averages were applied. After adapting the model to the up-to-date mass and energy flows within the European refineries, it has been validated and calibrated by comparing the results to the dataset of the BREF, the Eurostat and the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (E-PRTR). The simplified LCI tool can be adjusted to average conditions of a specific geography through the following parameters: refinery complexity (according to the complexity classes defined in the BREF document, type I-IV), crude oil sulfur content and American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity classification. To create this dataset, the above parameters were set to represent the average situation in Europe without Switzerland: Crude quality – API and sulfur content: Crude imports to Europe by country of origin were taken from BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2017 (Oil: Inter-area movements 2016) (BP, 2017) and matched with the crude quality reported for these regions in ENI World Oil Review 2018 (ENI, 2018). The resulting weighted average API grade of crude imports to Europe is 35, and the weighted average sulfur content 1.03%. Refinery complexity: The 2018 World Refining Survey (OGJ, 2018) reports the configuration of 107 refineries in Europe. According to their configuration each refinery was assigned a refinery type (I-IV) as defined in the BREF document. Weighted by the annual throughput volume, 62% of European refineries classify as type II, 29% as type II and 9% as type IV. LCIs were generated for BREF type II, III and IV for API 35 and sulfur content 1.03% (applying linear interpolation between sulfur content of 1% and 3%). This dataset was created as weighted average of types II-IV according to the above shares. Supporting documentation for the model underlying the ifeu tool can be found in the ecoinvent report on the petroleum refinery industry for the SRI project, by Fehrenbach et al. (2018). Reference(s): BP (2017) BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2017, online at https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp-country/de_ch/PDF/bp-statistical-review-of-world-energy-2017-full-report.pdf, last accessed March 2019. ENI (2018) World Oil Review 2018, Volume 1, online at https://www.eni.com/docs/it_IT/eni-com/azienda/fuel-cafe/WORLD-OIL-REVIEW-2018-Volume-1.pdf, last accessed March 2019. European Commission (2015) Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document (BREF) for the Refining of Mineral Oil and Gas, Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU Integrated Pollution Prevention and control, accessible online at http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/reference/BREF/REF_BREF_2015.pdf, February 2019 Fehrenbach, H., Liebich, A., Abdalla, N., Biemann, K., Fröhlich, T. Simon, B. (2017) Petroleum refinery industry and liquid fuels - Description of the ifeu refinery model and the calculation of LCI datasets for refinery products in Brazil, India, South Africa, Peru and Colombia. ecoinvent association, Zürich, Switzerland. Oil and Gas Journal (OGJ) (2017) 2018 Worldwide Refining Survey: Global, Oil & Gas Journal, 5 December 2018, Pennwell Publishing, Tulsa, OK, USA, accessed December 2018. generalComment of sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation (BR, CO, IN, PE, ZA): This dataset describes the operation of a typical oil refinery in the given geography. Since refineries are very complex the actual unit process modeling is done in a separate refinery model by ifeu and this is a subdivided product-specific dataset. The ifeu refinery model reproduces the complexity of petroleum refinery plants in which the combination and sequence of processes are usually very specific to the characteristics of the raw materials (i.e. the close relation between the composition of the crude oil and the products to be produced). Refineries differ not only in their configurations, process integration, feedstocks, product mixes, unit sizes, designs, and control systems but also the market situations, locations and ages of the refinery or environmental regulations can result in a wide variety of refinery concepts. It represents the current European state-of-the-art. The basic setting of the model reflects the technical characteristics of European refineries as described in the BREF - BAT reference document for the Refining of Mineral Oil and Gas. Further specific data was collected from companies and production plants and was incorporated in order to elaborate a comprehensive and robust model of a refinery. The BREF contains not only aggregated numbers or weighted averages of emission and energy or water consumptions, but also encompasses primary data of the majority of refineries in Europe in anonymous form. The data quality is excellent. This data source has been complemented by various specific confidential refinery datasets, by values from Eurostat (e.g. in the case of the energy source mix or process energy), and by literature data. In the case of the BREF, a range of values were mentioned as process parameters for which the arithmetic averages were applied. After adapting the model to the up-to-date mass and energy flows within the European refineries, it has been validated and calibrated by comparing the results to the dataset of the BREF, the Eurostat and the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (E-PRTR). Despite the default settings (weighted EU average), the refinery model was adjusted to fit typical refinery production data in the special geographies. In order to do this data from the refineries in the countries was analysed and an assessment of the refinery complexity (according to the BREF classes) was done. Furthermore crude oil qualities were researched an adjusted (e.g. sulphur content and API class) to fit the specified geography. Documentation for this model can be found in the ecoinvent refinery report by Fehrenbach et al. (2018). generalComment of sulfur production, petroleum refinery operation (RoW): This global (GLO) activity for petroleum refinery operation was created as a copy of the corresponding activity in Europe without Switzerland rather than as a production volume weighted average of all available regional activities. According to expert judgement, a production volume-weighted average including the regional activities available in ecoinvent v3.6 (BR, CH, CO, Europe without Switzerland, IN, PE, ZA) would overestimate the share of refinery complexity type IV in the global petroleum refinery sector. The mix of refinery complexity types used for the European activity was, therefore, found to be a more appropriate proxy for this GLO dataset. This limitation in representativeness of the GLO dataset should be kept in mind when using it. The describes the operation of a petroleum oil refinery of representative configuration and quality of crude oil input for European conditions. Since petroleum refineries are very complex the actual unit process modeling is done in a separate refinery tool, developed by ifeu (Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, Heidelberg, Germany) and this is a subdivided product-specific dataset. The ifeu petroleum refinery life cycle inventory (LCI) tool is based on the outputs of a complex refinery model that reproduces the complexity of petroleum refinery plants in which the combination and sequence of processes are usually very specific to the characteristics of the raw materials (i.e. the close relation between the composition of the crude oil and the products to be produced). Refineries differ not only in their configurations, process integration, feedstocks, product mixes, unit sizes, designs, and control systems but also the market situations, locations and ages of the refinery or environmental regulations can result in a wide variety of refinery concepts. It represents the current European state-of-the-art. The basic setting of the model reflects the technical characteristics of European refineries as described in the Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document (BREF) for the Refining of Mineral Oil and Gas (European Commission, 2015). Further specific data was collected from companies and production plants and was incorporated in order to elaborate a comprehensive and robust model of a refinery. The BREF (European Commission, 2015) contains not only aggregated numbers or weighted averages of emission and energy or water consumptions, but also encompasses primary data of the majority of refineries in Europe in anonymous form. This data source has been complemented by various specific confidential refinery datasets, by values from Eurostat (e.g. in the case of the energy source mix or process energy), and by literature data. In the case of the BREF, a range of values were mentioned as process parameters for which the arithmetic averages were applied. After adapting the model to the up-to-date mass and energy flows within the European refineries, it has been validated and calibrated by comparing the results to the dataset of the BREF, the Eurostat and the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (E-PRTR). The simplified LCI tool can be adjusted to average conditions of a specific geography through the following parameters: refinery complexity (according to the complexity classes defined in the BREF document, type I-IV), crude oil sulfur content and American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity classification. To create this dataset, the above parameters were set to represent the average situation in Europe without Switzerland: Crude quality – API and sulfur content: Crude imports to Europe by country of origin were taken from BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2017 (Oil: Inter-area movements 2016) (BP, 2017) and matched with the crude quality reported for these regions in ENI World Oil Review 2018 (ENI, 2018). The resulting weighted average API grade of crude imports to Europe is 35, and the weighted average sulfur content 1.03%. Refinery complexity: The 2018 World Refining Survey (OGJ, 2018) reports the configuration of 107 refineries in Europe. According to their configuration each refinery was assigned a refinery type (I-IV) as defined in the BREF document. Wei
Origin: /Bund/UBA/ProBas
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