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Markt für Blei

technologyComment of gold mine operation and refining (SE): OPEN PIT MINING: The ore is mined in four steps: drilling, blasting, loading and hauling. In the case of a surface mine, a pattern of holes is drilled in the pit and filled with explosives. The explosives are detonated in order to break up the ground so large shovels or front-end loaders can load it into haul trucks. ORE AND WASTE HAULAGE: The haul trucks transport the ore to various areas for processing. The grade and type of ore determine the processing method used. Higher-grade ores are taken to a mill. Lower grade ores are taken to leach pads. Some ores may be stockpiled for later processing. HEAP LEACHING: The ore is crushed or placed directly on lined leach pads where a dilute cyanide solution is applied to the surface of the heap. The solution percolates down through the ore, where it leaches the gold and flows to a central collection location. The solution is recovered in this closed system. The pregnant leach solution is fed to electrowinning cells and undergoes the same steps as described below from Electro-winning. ORE PROCESSING: Milling: The ore is fed into a series of grinding mills where steel balls grind the ore to a fine slurry or powder. Oxidization and leaching: Some types of ore require further processing before gold is recovered. In this case, the slurry is pressure-oxidized in an autoclave before going to the leaching tanks or a dry powder is fed through a roaster in which it is oxidized using heat before being sent to the leaching tanks as a slurry. The slurry is thickened and runs through a series of leaching tanks. The gold in the slurry adheres to carbon in the tanks. Stripping: The carbon is then moved into a stripping vessel where the gold is removed from the carbon by pumping a hot caustic solution through the carbon. The carbon is later recycled. Electro-winning: The gold-bearing solution is pumped through electro-winning cells or through a zinc precipitation circuit where the gold is recovered from the solution. Smelting: The gold is then melted in a furnace at about 1’064°C and poured into moulds, creating doré bars. Doré bars are unrefined gold bullion bars containing between 60% and 95% gold. References: Newmont (2004) How gold is mined. Newmont. Retrieved from http://www.newmont.com/en/gold/howmined/index.asp technologyComment of primary lead production from concentrate (GLO): There are two basic pyrometallurgical processes available for the production of lead from lead or mixed lead-zinc-sulphide concentrates: sinter oxidation / blast furnace reduction route or Direct Smelting Reduction Processes. Both processes are followed by a refining step to produce the final product with the required purity, and may also be used for concentrates mixed with secondary raw materials. SINTER OXIDATION / BLAST FURNACE REDUCTION: The sinter oxidation / blast furnace reduction involves two steps: 1) A sintering oxidative roast to remove sulphur with production of PbO; and 2) Blast furnace reduction of the sinter product. The objective of sintering lead concentrates is to remove as much sulphur as possible from the galena and the accompanying iron, zinc, and copper sulphides, while producing lump agglomerate with appropriate properties for subsequent reduction in the blast furnace (a type of a shaft furnace). As raw material feed, lead concentrates are blended with recycled sinter fines, secondary material and other process materials and pelletised in rotating drums. Pellets are fed onto sinter machine and ignited. The burning pellets are conveyed over a series of wind-boxes through which air is blown. Sulphur is oxidised to sulphur dioxide and the reaction generates enough heat to fuse and agglomerate the pellets. Sinter is charged to the blast furnace with metallurgical coke. Air and/or oxygen enriched air is injected and reacts with the coke to produce carbon monoxide. This generates sufficient heat to melt the charge. The gangue content of the furnace charge combines with the added fluxes or reagents to form a slag. For smelting bulk lead-zinc-concentrates and secondary material, frequently the Imperial Smelting Furnace is used. Here, hot sinter and pre-heated coke as well as hot briquettes are charged. Hot air is injected. The reduction of the metal oxides not only produces lead and slag but also zinc, which is volatile at the furnace operating temperature and passes out of the ISF with the furnace off-gases. The gases also contain some cadmium and lead. The furnace gases pass through a splash condenser in which a shower of molten lead quenches them and the metals are absorbed into the liquid lead, the zinc is refined by distillation. DIRECT SMELTING REDUCTION: The Direct Smelting Reduction Process does not carry out the sintering stage separately. Lead sulphide concentrates and secondary materials are charged directly to a furnace and are then melted and oxidised. Sulphur dioxide is formed and is collected, cleaned and converted to sulphuric acid. Carbon (coke or gas) and fluxing agents are added to the molten charge and lead oxide is reduced to lead, a slag is formed. Some zinc and cadmium are “fumed” off in the furnace, their oxides are captured in the abatement plant and recovered. Several processes are used for direct smelting of lead concentrates and some secondary material to produce crude lead and slag. Bath smelting processes are used: the ISA Smelt/Ausmelt furnaces (sometimes in combination with blast furnaces), Kaldo (TBRC) and QSL integrated processes are used in EU and Worldwide. The Kivcet integrated process is also used and is a flash smelting process. The ISA Smelt/Ausmelt furnaces and the QSL take moist, pelletised feed and the Kaldo and Kivcet use dried feed. REFINING: Lead bullion may contain varying amounts of copper, silver, bismuth, antimony, arsenic and tin. Lead recovered from secondary sources may contain similar impurities, but generally antimony and calcium dominate. There are two methods of refining crude lead: electrolytic refining and pyrometallurgical refining. Electrolytic refining uses anodes of de-copperised lead bullion and starter cathodes of pure lead. This is a high-cost process and is used infrequently. A pyrometallurgical refinery consists of a series of kettles, which are indirectly heated by oil or gas. Over a series of separation processes impurities and metal values are separated from the lead bouillon. Overall waste: The production of metals is related to the generation of several by-products, residues and wastes, which are also listed in the European Waste Catalogue (Council Decision 94/3/EEC). The ISF or direct smelting furnaces also are significant sources of solid slag. This slag has been subjected to high temperatures and generally contains low levels of leachable metals, consequently it may be used in construction. Solid residues also arise as the result of the treatment of liquid effluents. The main waste stream is gypsum waste (CaSO4) and metal hydroxides that are produced at the wastewater neutralisation plant. These wastes are considered to be a cross-media effect of these treatment techniques but many are recycled to pyrometallurgical process to recover the metals. Dust or sludge from the treatment of gases are used as raw materials for the production of other metals such as Ge, Ga, In and As, etc or can be returned to the smelter or into the leach circuit for the recovery of lead and zinc. Hg/Se residues arise at the pre-treatment of mercury or selenium streams from the gas cleaning stage. This solid waste stream amounts to approximately 40 - 120 t/y in a typical plant. Hg and Se can be recovered from these residues depending on the market for these metals. Overall emissions: The main emissions to air from zinc and lead production are sulphur dioxide, other sulphur compounds and acid mists; nitrogen oxides and other nitrogen compounds, metals and their compounds; dust; VOC and dioxins. Other pollutants are considered to be of negligible importance for the industry, partly because they are not present in the production process and partly because they are immediately neutralised (e.g. chlorine) or occur in very low concentrations. Emissions are to a large extent bound to dust (except cadmium, arsenic and mercury that can be present in the vapour phase). Metals and their compounds and materials in suspension are the main pollutants emitted to water. The metals concerned are Zn, Cd, Pb, Hg, Se, Cu, Ni, As, Co and Cr. Other significant substances are fluorides, chlorides and sulphates. Wastewater from the gas cleaning of the smelter and fluid-bed roasting stages are the most important sources. References: Sutherland C. A., Milner E. F., Kerby R. C., Teindl H. and Melin A. (1997) Lead. In: Ullmann's encyclopedia of industrial chemistry (ed. Anonymous). 5th edition on CD-ROM Edition. Wiley & Sons, London. IPPC (2001) Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC); Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Non Ferrous Metals Industries. European Commission. Retrieved from http://www.jrc.es/pub/english.cgi/ 0/733169 technologyComment of primary zinc production from concentrate (RoW): The technological representativeness of this dataset is considered to be high as smelting methods for zinc are consistent in all regions. Refined zinc produced pyro-metallurgically represents less than 5% of global zinc production and less than 2% of this dataset. Electrometallurgical Smelting The main unit processes for electrometallurgical zinc smelting are roasting, leaching, purification, electrolysis, and melting. In both electrometallurgical and pyro-metallurgical zinc production routes, the first step is to remove the sulfur from the concentrate. Roasting or sintering achieves this. The concentrate is heated in a furnace with operating temperature above 900 °C (exothermic, autogenous process) to convert the zinc sulfide to calcine (zinc oxide). Simultaneously, sulfur reacts with oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide, which is subsequently converted to sulfuric acid in acid plants, usually located with zinc-smelting facilities. During the leaching process, the calcine is dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid solution (re-circulated back from the electrolysis cells) to produce aqueous zinc sulfate solution. The iron impurities dissolve as well and are precipitated out as jarosite or goethite in the presence of calcine and possibly ammonia. Jarosite and goethite are usually disposed of in tailing ponds. Adding zinc dust to the zinc sulfate solution facilitates purification. The purification of leachate leads to precipitation of cadmium, copper, and cobalt as metals. In electrolysis, the purified solution is electrolyzed between lead alloy anodes and aluminum cathodes. The high-purity zinc deposited on aluminum cathodes is stripped off, dried, melted, and cast into SHG zinc ingots (99.99 % zinc). Pyro-metallurgical Smelting The pyro-metallurgical smelting process is based on the reduction of zinc and lead oxides into metal with carbon in an imperial smelting furnace. The sinter, along with pre-heated coke, is charged from the top of the furnace and injected from below with pre-heated air. This ensures that temperature in the center of the furnace remains in the range of 1000-1500 °C. The coke is converted to carbon monoxide, and zinc and lead oxides are reduced to metallic zinc and lead. The liquid lead bullion is collected at the bottom of the furnace along with other metal impurities (copper, silver, and gold). Zinc in vapor form is collected from the top of the furnace along with other gases. Zinc vapor is then condensed into liquid zinc. The lead and cadmium impurities in zinc bullion are removed through a distillation process. The imperial smelting process is an energy-intensive process and produces zinc of lower purity than the electrometallurgical process. technologyComment of treatment of electronics scrap, metals recovery in copper smelter (SE, RoW): Conversion of Copper in a Kaldo Converter and treatment in converter aisle. technologyComment of treatment of scrap lead acid battery, remelting (RoW): The referred operation uses a shaft furnace with post combustion, which is the usual technology for secondary smelters. technologyComment of treatment of scrap lead acid battery, remelting (RER): The referred operation uses a shaft furnace with post combustion, which is the usual technology for secondary smelters. Typically this technology produces 5000 t / a sulphuric acid (15% concentration), 25’000 t lead bullion (98% Pb), 1200 t / a slags (1% Pb) and 3000 t / a raw lead matte (10% Pb) to be shipped to primary smelters. Overall Pb yield is typically 98.8% at the plant level and 99.8% after reworking the matte. The operation treats junk batteries and plates but also lead cable sheathing, drosses and sludges, leaded glass and balancing weights. From this feed it manufactures mainly antimonial lead up to 10% Sb, calcium-aluminium lead alloys with or without tin and soft lead with low and high copper content. All these products are the result of a refining and alloying step to meet the compliance with the designations desired. The following by products are reused in the process: fine dust, slag, and sulfuric acid. References: Quirijnen L. (1999) How to implement efficient local lead-acid battery recycling. In: Journal of Power Sources, 78(1-2), pp. 267-269.

Markt für Kupfer, Kathode

technologyComment of aluminium alloy production, AlLi (CA-QC, RoW): No comment present technologyComment of aluminium alloy production, Metallic Matrix Composite (CA-QC, RoW): No comment present technologyComment of cobalt production (GLO): Cobalt, as a co-product of nickel and copper production, is obtained using a wide range of technologies. The initial life cycle stage covers the mining of the ore through underground or open cast methods. The ore is further processed in beneficiation to produce a concentrate and/or raffinate solution. Metal selection and further concentration is initiated in primary extraction, which may involve calcining, smelting, high pressure leaching, and other processes. The final product is obtained through further refining, which may involve processes such as re-leaching, selective solvent / solution extraction, selective precipitation, electrowinning, and other treatments. Transport is reported separately and consists of only the internal movements of materials / intermediates, and not the movement of final product. Due to its intrinsic value, cobalt has a high recycling rate. However, much of this recycling takes place downstream through the recycling of alloy scrap into new alloy, or goes into the cobalt chemical sector as an intermediate requiring additional refinement. Secondary production, ie production from the recycling of cobalt-containing wastes, is considered in this study in so far as it occurs as part of the participating companies’ production. This was shown to be of very limited significance (less than 1% of cobalt inputs). The secondary materials used for producing cobalt are modelled as entering the system free of environmental burden. technologyComment of copper production, cathode, solvent extraction and electrowinning process (GLO): Oxide ores and supergene sulphide ores (i.e. ores not containing iron) can be recovered most easily by hydro-metallurgical techniques, such as SX-EW. The general steps of mining and refining are identical to those of copper mine operation and primary copper production, respectively. The difference lies in that the beneficiation and smelting stages are by-passed and substituted with a leaching stage followed by cementation or electro-winning. technologyComment of electrorefining of copper, anode (GLO): Based on typical current technology. technologyComment of gold mine operation and refining (SE): OPEN PIT MINING: The ore is mined in four steps: drilling, blasting, loading and hauling. In the case of a surface mine, a pattern of holes is drilled in the pit and filled with explosives. The explosives are detonated in order to break up the ground so large shovels or front-end loaders can load it into haul trucks. ORE AND WASTE HAULAGE: The haul trucks transport the ore to various areas for processing. The grade and type of ore determine the processing method used. Higher-grade ores are taken to a mill. Lower grade ores are taken to leach pads. Some ores may be stockpiled for later processing. HEAP LEACHING: The ore is crushed or placed directly on lined leach pads where a dilute cyanide solution is applied to the surface of the heap. The solution percolates down through the ore, where it leaches the gold and flows to a central collection location. The solution is recovered in this closed system. The pregnant leach solution is fed to electrowinning cells and undergoes the same steps as described below from Electro-winning. ORE PROCESSING: Milling: The ore is fed into a series of grinding mills where steel balls grind the ore to a fine slurry or powder. Oxidization and leaching: Some types of ore require further processing before gold is recovered. In this case, the slurry is pressure-oxidized in an autoclave before going to the leaching tanks or a dry powder is fed through a roaster in which it is oxidized using heat before being sent to the leaching tanks as a slurry. The slurry is thickened and runs through a series of leaching tanks. The gold in the slurry adheres to carbon in the tanks. Stripping: The carbon is then moved into a stripping vessel where the gold is removed from the carbon by pumping a hot caustic solution through the carbon. The carbon is later recycled. Electro-winning: The gold-bearing solution is pumped through electro-winning cells or through a zinc precipitation circuit where the gold is recovered from the solution. Smelting: The gold is then melted in a furnace at about 1’064°C and poured into moulds, creating doré bars. Doré bars are unrefined gold bullion bars containing between 60% and 95% gold. References: Newmont (2004) How gold is mined. Newmont. Retrieved from http://www.newmont.com/en/gold/howmined/index.asp technologyComment of platinum group metal mine operation, ore with high palladium content (RU): imageUrlTagReplace6250302f-4c86-4605-a56f-03197a7811f2 technologyComment of platinum group metal, extraction and refinery operations (ZA): The ores from the different ore bodies are processed in concentrators where a PGM concentrate is produced with a tailing by product. The PGM base metal concentrate product from the different concentrators processing the different ores are blended during the smelting phase to balance the sulphur content in the final matte product. Smelter operators also carry out toll smelting from third part concentrators. The smelter product is send to the Base metal refinery where the PGMs are separated from the Base Metals. Precious metal refinery is carried out on PGM concentrate from the Base metal refinery to split the PGMs into individual metal products. Water analyses measurements for Anglo Platinum obtained from literature (Slatter et.al, 2009). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” Water share between MC and EC from Mudd (2010). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” technologyComment of primary zinc production from concentrate (RoW): The technological representativeness of this dataset is considered to be high as smelting methods for zinc are consistent in all regions. Refined zinc produced pyro-metallurgically represents less than 5% of global zinc production and less than 2% of this dataset. Electrometallurgical Smelting The main unit processes for electrometallurgical zinc smelting are roasting, leaching, purification, electrolysis, and melting. In both electrometallurgical and pyro-metallurgical zinc production routes, the first step is to remove the sulfur from the concentrate. Roasting or sintering achieves this. The concentrate is heated in a furnace with operating temperature above 900 °C (exothermic, autogenous process) to convert the zinc sulfide to calcine (zinc oxide). Simultaneously, sulfur reacts with oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide, which is subsequently converted to sulfuric acid in acid plants, usually located with zinc-smelting facilities. During the leaching process, the calcine is dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid solution (re-circulated back from the electrolysis cells) to produce aqueous zinc sulfate solution. The iron impurities dissolve as well and are precipitated out as jarosite or goethite in the presence of calcine and possibly ammonia. Jarosite and goethite are usually disposed of in tailing ponds. Adding zinc dust to the zinc sulfate solution facilitates purification. The purification of leachate leads to precipitation of cadmium, copper, and cobalt as metals. In electrolysis, the purified solution is electrolyzed between lead alloy anodes and aluminum cathodes. The high-purity zinc deposited on aluminum cathodes is stripped off, dried, melted, and cast into SHG zinc ingots (99.99 % zinc). Pyro-metallurgical Smelting The pyro-metallurgical smelting process is based on the reduction of zinc and lead oxides into metal with carbon in an imperial smelting furnace. The sinter, along with pre-heated coke, is charged from the top of the furnace and injected from below with pre-heated air. This ensures that temperature in the center of the furnace remains in the range of 1000-1500 °C. The coke is converted to carbon monoxide, and zinc and lead oxides are reduced to metallic zinc and lead. The liquid lead bullion is collected at the bottom of the furnace along with other metal impurities (copper, silver, and gold). Zinc in vapor form is collected from the top of the furnace along with other gases. Zinc vapor is then condensed into liquid zinc. The lead and cadmium impurities in zinc bullion are removed through a distillation process. The imperial smelting process is an energy-intensive process and produces zinc of lower purity than the electrometallurgical process. technologyComment of treatment of copper cake (GLO): 'The ore is pre-treated, reduced and refined according to the country specific mix of process alternatives: reverberatory furnace 23.7%; flash smelting furnaces 60.7%; other 6.2%.; SX-EW 9.4%. An overall abatement for sulphur dioxide of 45.4% was estimated.' as cited in original dataset. technologyComment of treatment of copper scrap by electrolytic refining (RoW): In three different stages different types of copper scrap and 10% of the feed of blister copper are refined to copper cathodes. Waste water is led to a communal treatment plant. technologyComment of treatment of copper scrap by electrolytic refining (RER): Secondary copper consists of various types of scrap. Prompt scrap is directly reused in foundries and is not further processed. Old scrap has to be treated in a secondary copper smelter, where a variety of metal values are recuperated. Depending on the chemical composition, the raw materials of a secondary copper smelter are processed in different types of furnaces, including: - blast furnaces (up to 30% of Cu in the average charge), - converters (about 75% Cu), and - anode furnaces (about 95% Cu). A scheme of the process considered is given in Fig 1. The blast furnace metal (“black copper”) is treated in a converter; then, the converter metal is refined in an anode furnace. In each step additional raw material with corresponding copper content is added. In the blast furnace, a mixture of raw materials, iron scrap, limestone and sand as well as coke is charged at the top. Air that can be enriched with oxygen is blown through the tuyeres. The coke is burnt and the charge materials are smelted under reducing conditions. Black copper and slag are discharged from tapholes. The converters used in primary copper smelting, working on mattes containing iron sulphide, generate surplus heat and additions of scrap copper are often used to control the temperature. The converter provides a convenient and cheap form of scrap treatment, but often with only moderately efficient gas cleaning. Alternatively, hydrometallurgical treatment of scrap, using ammonia leaching, yields to solutions which can be reduced by hydrogen to obtain copper powder. Alternatively, these solutions can be treated by solvent extraction to produce feed to a copper-winning cell. Converter copper is charged together with copper raw materials in anode furnace operation. For smelting the charge, oil or coal dust is used, mainly in reverberatory furnaces. After smelting, air is blown on the bath to oxidise the remaining impurities. Leaded brasses, containing as much as 3% of lead, are widely used in various applications and recycling of their scrap waste is an important activity. Such scrap contains usually much swarf and turnings coated with lubricant and cutting oils. Copper-containing cables and motors contain plastic or rubber insulants, varnishes, and lacquers. In such cases, scrap needs pre-treatment to remove these non-metallic materials. The smaller sizes of scrap can be pre-treated thermally in a rotary kiln provided with an after-burner to consume smoke and oil vapours (so-called Intal process). Emissions and waste: Elevated levels of halogenated organic compounds may arise, such as TCDD. Slags are usually used in construction. Waste water is led to a communal treatment plant. References: EEA, 1999. imageUrlTagReplacef2b602ec-dc47-48e3-88a7-ab8ec727bd33 technologyComment of treatment of metal part of electronics scrap, in copper, anode, by electrolytic refining (SE, RoW): Production of cathode copper by electrolytic refining. technologyComment of treatment of non-Fe-Co-metals, from used Li-ion battery, hydrometallurgical processing (GLO): The technique SX-EW is used mainly for oxide ores and supergene sulphide ores (i.e. ores not containing iron). It is assumed to be used for the treatment of the non-Fe-Co-metals fraction. The process includes a leaching stage followed by cementation or electro-winning. A general description of the process steps is given below. In the dump leaching step, copper is recovered from large quantities (millions of tonnes) of strip oxide ores with a very low grade. Dilute sulphuric acid is trickled through the material. Once the process starts it continues naturally if water and air are circulated through the heap. The time required is typically measured in years. Sulphur dioxide is emitted during such operations. Soluble copper is then recovered from drainage tunnels and ponds. Copper recovery rates vary from 30% to 70%. Cconsiderable amounts of sulphuric acid and leaching agents emit into water and air. No figures are currently available on the dimension of such emissions. After the solvent-solvent extraction, considerable amounts of leaching residues remain, which consist of undissolved minerals and the remainders of leaching chemicals. In the solution cleaning step occur precipitation of impurities and filtration or selective enrichment of copper by solvent extraction or ion exchange. The solvent extraction process comprises two steps: selective extraction of copper from an aqueous leach solution into an organic phase (extraction circuit) and the re-extraction or stripping of the copper into dilute sulphuric acid to give a solution suitable for electro winning (stripping circuit). In the separation step occurs precipitation of copper metal or copper compounds such as Cu2O, CuS, CuCl, CuI, CuCN, or CuSO4 • 5 H2O (crystallisation) Waste: Like in the pyrometallurgical step, considerable quantities of solid residuals are generated, which are mostly recycled within the process or sent to other specialists to recover any precious metals. Final residues generally comprise hydroxide filter cakes (iron hydroxide, 60% water, cat I industrial waste). technologyComment of treatment of non-Fe-Co-metals, from used Li-ion battery, pyrometallurgical processing (GLO): Based on technology that treats anode slime by pressure leaching and top blown rotary converter. technologyComment of treatment of used cable (GLO): Shredder, followed by a modern grinding machine with current separation technology

Bio fuel oil for power plants and boilers

Das Projekt "Bio fuel oil for power plants and boilers" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von Universität Hamburg, Department für Biologie, Zentrum Holzwirtschaft, Ordinariat für Chemische Holztechnologie und Institut für Holzchemie und Chemische Technologie des Holzes der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Forst- und Holzwirtschaft durchgeführt. General Information/Objectives: The present proposal is aimed at: 1) generating performance, emission and cost data for flash pyrolysis oil (biofuel oil) utilization schemes focusing on the market quality of the oil as a fuel for two applications: stationary medium-speed diesel engine power plant and medium scale oil boilers, 2) developing downstream units of oil production, improving the oil quality and establishing fundamental understanding of biomass pyrolysis, and 3) establishing a network of potential producers and users. The cooperation includes potential pyrolysis oil producers and users, biomass producers, power and energy companies, universities and research institutions. Technical Approach Flash pyrolysis oil (bio fuel oil) is the lowest cost biomass-derived liquid fuel. Only relatively recently has enough oil been available for utilization tests. The complete utilization chain, where biomass-derived biofuel oil is employed as diesel power plant fuel, will be studied. The engines in question are pilot injected medium and high speed engines available approximately in the size range of 50-5000kWe. Another related topic is the use of biofuel oil as heating oil for small boilers in the size range of 50-500kWt. Use of pyrolysis oil in existing or slightly modified heating boilers on this scale could be the first economic application of biofuel oil in countries of high fuel oil taxation. Expected Achievements and Exploitation One of the problems with the introduction of biomass into energy infrastructure is the high cost of transporting and storing biomass. In addition, there are extra investment costs in solid biomass utilization systems compared to systems using liquid fuels. Flash pyrolysis is estimated to be the lowest cost route to liquid biofuel. Introducing a low cost biofuel oil would lead to a considerable expansion of markets for biofuels. Biomass flash pyrolysis oil production and utilization is still at an early stage of development and, to achieve the critical mass needed to increase knowledge in the field, experts from different countries and different organizations have to be assembled. It is unlikely that any one company or country is able to develop new promising yet poorly developed processes for commercial bio fuel operation. Through the network character of the project it will be possible to utilize and upgrade information for wider use. Within this consortium the results may be used directly in the pilot plant operations. Biofuel oil quality requirements will be common for all European pyrolysis process operators. Potential pyrolysis oil producers and users, biomass producers, and power and energy companies participating may employ results in their future operations. Prime Contractor: Technical Research Centre of Finland, Energy Process Technology; Espoo; Finland.

PV hybrid systems for 5 remote sites in the german alps

Das Projekt "PV hybrid systems for 5 remote sites in the german alps" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von Deutscher Alpenverein e.V. durchgeführt. Objective: Photovoltaic, hybrid electricity supplies for five different sites in the German Alps. The mountain huts are not connected to the grid. Lightning protection of the systems is a major concern. Economic operation and reduced ecological pollution are aims of the project. General Information: Five remote sites are equipped with PV generators for lighting, household appliances, communication equipment and water pumping. The auxiliary generators are foreseen to operate only if the demand cannot be met by the pv part. In the four small installation the inverter operates only on demand of 220 V ac load. The two larger systems use a special transformerless inverter (developed for the project SE/134/83, Rappenecker Hof), which is operating continuously. 'Global monitoring' is made for the small installations, and 'Analytical monitoring' for the two larger stations. Nr. of subsystems: 5 Power of subsystems: 900, 1000, 1040, 5000, 5400 Wp Total power: 13,3 kWp Backup: Diesel, gas (and wind at one site) Number of modules: 266 Module description: 20 Siemens SM50 (Purtscheller) and 152 AEG PQ36/45 (Brunnstein, Meiler, Mindelheim) and 94 TST MQ36D/53 (Watzmann). Connection: 24 V (for systems smaller than+ 1 kWp) or special Support: special mounting (no holes in the roof) on the sheet metal roofs Max power tracker: none Charge controller: special design by Uhlmann Solarelectronic, IBC Battery: Bayern, Fiamm, Hoppecke, Hagen Batt. (V): 24 V for systems smaller than= 1kWp; special connection for the 2 large systems Capacity (Ah): 100 and 150 Ah at 162 V, 500 and 600 Ah at 24 V. Inverter: Special transformerless inverter at two sites. (Watzmannhaus and Mindelheimer Huette) with 10 kVA each of FhG-ISE (sinusoidal). At two other sites (Purtscheller and Brunnstein): 'Al-elektronic' (trapezoidal) with 1.6 kVA each. At Meiler Huette: 'Sunpower' 2 kVA (sinusoidal). Load description: For lights: fluorescent lamps for 24 V and 230 V. Water pump. Low consumption household appliances, freezers, refrigerators, dish washers ecc. Monitoring: 'Global' for the 4 small systems, 11 data, daily, manual reading of mechanical meters. 'Analytical' for the two larger systems: data, hourly averages stored in data logger.

Safety studies with nuclear fuels, 1988-1991

Das Projekt "Safety studies with nuclear fuels, 1988-1991" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC). Institute for Transuranium Elements (ITU) durchgeführt. Objective: To study mechanisms and properties determining fuel and fission product behaviour during both, base and off-normal conditions. This activity involves unirradiated and irradiated 'classical' and 'improved' fuel samples of various composition and over a wide range of temperatures, up to very high burn-up, and makes use of appropriate computer models. The final aim of the activity is the improvement of the safety of fuel operation in a reactor. General Information: Progress to end 1990. The Laboratory continued its cooperation with the International Fission Gas Release Project Riso III (Dk) by incorporating the extensive experimental data resulting from the programme into the OFT data bank and evaluating them with existing TU fuel performance codes. - The OECD-coordinated activity for analysing fuel and fuel debris of the Three Mile Island (TMI) damaged reactor has been concluded. An apparatus for thermal diffusivity measurements on active specimens with the laser flash technique has been constructed. - Nitride fuels with a 'tailored' structure and heterogeneous fuels (U, Pu)O2 and UN) were fabricated for short-term irradiations in the HFR-reactor. Irradiations of fuels for future reactors to test their behaviour at the beginning of life (BOL) and at the end of life (EOL), NILOC (HFR) and NIMPHE (PHENIX), respectively, have been continued. Out-of-pile tests were performed to study changes in structure and composition of mixed nitride fuel pins in an axial temperature gradient. - Measurements of the heat capacity of UO2 up to 8000K were concluded and the results are being analysed. Radiative properties of oxides (thoria, urania, zirconia) were measured in the solid and the liquid range. A model for the total emissivity of urania was developed. - The code MITRA has been adapted to perform source term calculations. A computer code for the calculation of the thermo chemical equilibrium of fission products was written and a database for fission product compounds has been implemented with interface to the SOLGASMIX/MITRA codes. A shielded Knudsen cell for irradiated UO2 fuel has been assembled. - Work in 1990 on the safety of nuclear fuels has resulted in 33 (status September '90) contributions to conferences, articles in scientific journals, reports and chapters in books; two patents were granted. Detailed description of work foreseen in 1991 (expected results). Riso III results will undergo final evaluation and fuel work will concentrate on MOX fuel and on the structural and chemical changes at local burn-ups of up to 15 per cent . Laboratory work will principally deal with SIMFUEL with 6 and 8 per cent burn-up. Modelling work will continue. Annealing tests will be performed under oxidizing and reducing atmosphere on U02 samples irradiated up to 55 GWd/t, in order to determine fission gas release as a function of O/M . A remotely controlled thermal diffusivity apparatus will be mounted in a hot cell. BOL and EOL irradiations NILOC and ...

PV power supply for remote village 'rambla del banco'

Das Projekt "PV power supply for remote village 'rambla del banco'" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von SET Selected Electronic Technologies GmbH durchgeführt. Objective: Test of new pv components and system technology. Electrification (lights, cooling, TV) of remote mountain village, that had no electricity before. Provide extra power for production and finishing industry. General Information: A central pv system with some innovative ideas: electronic power management (reduces inverter peak power), controller for outdoor lighting, special fluorescent lamps, lightning protection. AC and DC power available in the houses: AC during the day for refrigerators (with cold storage for the night), washing machines, kitchen appliances and for charging the decentralized batteries. DC during night for lights and television. Some modular street lamps, type SELSET 18W. Nr. of subsystems: 2 (one cristalline AEG, one amorphous Chronar France) Power of subsystems: 9.8 + 2 kWp Total power: 11,8 kWp Backup: none Number of modules: AEG:196. CHRONAR:184 Module description: AEG: PQ 10/40 HD50, 50 Wp. CHRONAR: CSB 13, 11Wp. Connection: AEG: four in series, 49 parallel CHRONAR: four in series, 46 parallel. Support: On racks Max power tracker: none Charge controller: Type CDC 48-7-35 and CDC 106 Battery: central storage: distributed storage Batt. (V): 48: 12 Capacity (Ah): 1200: 150 each Inverter: MARATHON (LS), type WRM 48/48 Inv. in (V): 48 Inv. out(V): 220, single phase, square wave Inv. power (kW): 4,8 (with overload tolerance: 20 kW for 10 sec., 10 kW for 5 min., etc.) Load description: DC loads: lamps (150 units, type TWL18 or HAL10) and TV sets. AC loads: Through a load management system (LSE); Refrigerators, washing machines, kitchen appliances, some milking machines. Monitoring: SET data logger 'DAMOS': irradiances, temperatures, input + output currents, tensions, wind speed and direction. Achievements: The system started operation in October 1990. Load management (through the LMS system) is not yet necessary because of low consumption. The abundance of energy continues even after year because people are moving away from the village and the remaining ones have no money to buy ac-appliances. The central battery had to be replaced in 1992 (by Bosch, successor of FEMSA). The cost per unit of energy is calculated to be 3.5 Ecu/kWh for the demonstration project and 2.3 Ecu/kWh for a replication.

Lightning protection of wind turbines

Das Projekt "Lightning protection of wind turbines" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von Tacke Windtechnik GmbH & Co KG durchgeführt. General Information/Objectives: It may be shown that lightning strikes are the cause of a disproportionately large loss of kWh generation. Consequently the objectives of the project are the investigation and the development of a general methodology for the protection of wind turbine generator systems from lightning strikes. The project will provide practical assistance and guidance to the designers and operators of wind turbines to put in place cost-effective lightning protection systems providing a to-be-determined level of protection so that the effects of lightning can be minimised. Experimental work will examine the effect of lightning on blades and bearings. Various protection measures will be assessed. Computer analysis and simulation will be used to investigate induced voltages in control circuits and to model the response of wind farm earthing systems to lightning. Technical Approach The project will consist of a number of phases. - Recorded strike data will be collated by a questionnaire survey and a document search from published data. - Estimates will be made of the level of protection required for different geographical locations using available data. - Testing will be used to estimate the susceptibility of blade structures to lightning damage and to investigate the effects of lightning strikes on the rotating bearings in the wind turbine drive train. - The guidelines of existing good lightning protection practice will be reviewed for their relevance to wind turbines and wind farms. Case studies will be made of existing wind turbine nacelle and tower designs to demonstrate the likely distribution of severe strike current and the consequent effects in generating induced voltages in wiring. - An analysis of the problem of maintaining the safety of the operators on wind farm sites will be made to establish the scale of the hazard. - The response of wind farm earthing to lightning will be investigated using computer simulation. - A best practice guide will enable designers to assess the risk from lightning arising from their design, manufacture and sitting of their turbines and assist them in appropriate protection measures. Expected Achievements and Exploitation A designers guide will be made available to European industry so that wind turbines and wind farms are designed and constructed with a level of protection that makes the risk of lightning strikes acceptable. The research carried out in the project will be included to illustrate the philosophy used in determining the recommendations made: - Support the move toward the increase in size of wind turbines. - Reduction in power losses due to lightning strikes. - Improved public perception of wind energy. - Increased utilisation of wind energy within the EU resulting in reduced fossil-fuel emissions. Prime Contractor: Birtley Engineering Ltd.; Southampton; United Kingdom.

Highly reliable PV applications in regions of the European Alps

Das Projekt "Highly reliable PV applications in regions of the European Alps" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von Deutscher Alpenverein e.V. durchgeführt. Objective: In the frame of this proposal we intend to demonstrate high reliable PV applications in regions of the European Alps (EURALP) with the help of advanced telemonitoring and control systems. The project consist of 22 subprojects in the range of 1-5 kWp located in mountain regions all over Europe. Involved will be the German Alpine Club (DAV), Serveis Energetics Basic Autonoms (SEBA) from Spain and the Austrian Alpine Club (OEAV). All the proposed systems are stand alone energy supplies for existing mountain lodges in very remote areas. The objects are of great touristic interest and visited by thousands of people each year. Main objective will be the reduction of pollution and noise in natural reserve areas as well as the avoidance of net-CO2 emission. Some of the existing diesel generator sets will be replaced within this project by rape-oil generator sets. The high reliability will be reached by the application at advanced telemonitoring control systems. General Information: Within the EURALP project we intend to demonstrate advanced and high reliable PV systems in regions of the European Alps, were many lightning strikes caused failure or even destroyed the main electronic parts of the systems. This will be reached by implementing an intelligent tele-monitoring system combined with an innovative lightning detection and warning system which is already working in Austria. Since the 22 subprojects are different in their sizes, their power requirements and their natural resources it is impossible to design a standard hybrid system. For that reason it is planned to install at all sites the same advanced energy management system in combination with the monitoring equipment. The total installed PV peak power will be 65 kW. This allows to implement the same control strategy of priority dependent utilization of the power at all subprojects and will lead to a drastical reduction of load peaks, i.e. a high quality energy supply to the consumers. The data acquisition system and the possibility of working with a modem will facilitate, to a large extend, the maintenance and repair time in case of any failure and greatly improve the reliability of the photovoltaic system. Prime Contractor: Deutscher Alpenverein e.V.; München; Germany.

Thüringer 3Burgen-Ei GmbH

Die Thüringer 3Burgen-Ei GmbH, Mühlberger Straße 10b in 99869 Drei Gleichen, stellte beim Thüringer Landesamt für Umwelt, Bergbau und Naturschutz (TLUBN) den Antrag auf eine Genehmigung nach § 16 BImSchG zur wesentlichen Änderung der Anlage zum Halten von Hennen (Legehennen) im Landkreis Gotha, 99869 Drei Gleichen OT Wandersleben, Mühlberger Str. 10b, Gemarkung Wandersleben und Apfelstädt. • Änderung Stall Meisterbereich (MB) 12/1 durch: - Reduzierung der Tierplätze von 24.500 TPL auf 24.000 TPL - Errichtung eines Kaltscharrraumes mit Zugangsmöglichkeit zum Freiland, Schaffung einer Auslauffläche - Änderung der Haltungsart in Freilandhaltung, daneben weiterhin Möglichkeit der Bodenhaltung - Abbruch des alten Eierhauses - Demontage der Kotbänder (Stallförderer) an der Südseite des Stalles und Ersatz durch gleichwertige Anlagentechnik an Nordseite - Errichtung einer Rampe zur Be- und Entladung südlich des Eiersammelgebäudes - Änderung bei der Futtermittelbevorratung durch Errichtung und Betrieb zweier neuer Futtersilos, Verschiebung (Demontage u. Wiederaufbau) eines vorhandenen Silos sowie Rückbau des alten Silofundamentes • Änderung MB 21 (Stall 21.1 und 21.2): - Reduzierung der TPL in MB 21.1 und MB 21.2 in Abhängigkeit von der Betriebsweise / Haltungsart und Betreiben der Ställe in alternativer Betriebsweise Boden- und Freilandhaltung, in diesem Zusammenhang Schaffung einer Auslauffläche für den MB 21.2  Haltungsform Bodenhaltung: Reduzierung von 51.750 TPL auf 39.628 TPL je Stall  Haltungsform Freilandhaltung: Reduzierung von 51.750 TPL auf 35.500 TPL je Stall - Änderung der Stalleinrichtungen in beiden Ställen - Erneuerung der Kotförderbänder - Installation und Betrieb neuer Lufteinlassklappen (Flash 3300) - Änderung bei der Futtermittelbevorratung durch Errichtung und Betrieb dreier neuer Futtersilos, Verschiebung (Demontage u. Wiederaufbau) eines vorhandenen Silos sowie Abbruch eines alten Silos - Bauliche Erweiterung des Eiersammelgebäudes und Errichtung einer Rampe zur Be- und Entladung • Reduzierung der TPL der Gesamtanlage von 565.320 TPL auf 540.576 TPL oder alternativ 532.230 TPL in Abhängigkeit der Betriebsweise MB 21

Estimating the production of nitrogen oxides by lightning from satellite remote sensing

Das Projekt "Estimating the production of nitrogen oxides by lightning from satellite remote sensing" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von Max-Planck-Institut für Chemie (Otto-Hahn-Institut) durchgeführt. Nitrogen oxides (NOx=NO+NO2) are important atmospheric trace gases, causing catalytic ozone production in the troposphere and controlling the atmosphere-s oxidizing capacity. Lightning provides a natural source of NOx, dominating the production in the tropical upper troposphere. Recent estimates of lightning produced NOx (LNOx) are about 5 Tg (N) per year, but uncertainties are still in the range of one order of magnitude. For reliable model calculations of atmospheric chemistry, better knowledge on LNOx is essential. Since ten years, spectroscopic measurements from satellite platforms allow the retrieval of tropospheric NO2 column densities. The specific advantages of satellite observations, i.e. long time series with global coverage, provide valuable information on NOx source distribution and -strengths and offer a new and independent approach to the estimation of LNOx. In some case studies, the potential of identifying LNOx in satellite NO2 data has been demonstrated. Within a comprehensive analysis, it is proposed to use satellite data to reduce existing uncertainties and compile regional and global budgets of LNOx.

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