Dieser Dienst stellt für das INSPIRE-Thema Produktions- und Industrieanlagen IED Daten bereit.:Dieser Layer visualisiert die saarl. Produktions- und Industrieanlagen zum Thema Forging, pressing, stamping and roll-forming of metal; powder metallurgy. Die Datengrundlage erfüllt die INSPIRE Datenspezifikation.
Die vorliegende Studie bietet Unternehmen der deutschen metallerzeugenden und -verarbeitenden Industrie und deren Stakeholder eine Orientierung zu bedeutenden Umweltauswirkungen entlang der Lieferketten. Sie soll Unternehmen bei der Umsetzung umweltbezogener Sorgfaltspflichten und des Umweltmanagements in global verzweigten Lieferketten unterstützen. Die Studie enthält eine modellbasierte Analyse der Lieferketten zur „Metallerzeugung und -bearbeitung“ und „Herstellung von Metallerzeugnissen“ für die Umweltthemen Treibhausgase, Luftschadstoffe, Fläche, Wasser, wassergefährdende Stoffe und Abfälle. Vertieft betrachtet werden die Rohstoffe Bauxit (Aluminium), Kupfer sowie Zink. Auf Grundlage der Analyseergebnisse formulieren die Autoren*Autorinnen Handlungsmöglichkeiten für Unternehmen. Veröffentlicht in Texte | 142/2024.
Gewinnung von Tellur Auslastung: 1h/a Brenn-/Einsatzstoff: Ressourcen Flächeninanspruchnahme: 0,0222m² gesicherte Leistung: 100% Jahr: 2010 Lebensdauer: 1a Leistung: 1t/h Nutzungsgrad: 50% Produkt: Metalle
Gewinnung von Cadmium Auslastung: 1h/a Brenn-/Einsatzstoff: Ressourcen Flächeninanspruchnahme: 0,0222m² gesicherte Leistung: 100% Jahr: 2010 Lebensdauer: 1a Leistung: 1t/h Nutzungsgrad: 50% Produkt: Metalle
Chrom ist ein in der Erde weit verbreitetes, in vielen Mineralen vorkommendes Element, das für Mensch und Tier lebensnotwendig ist. Es existiert in mehreren Oxidationsstufen, doch nur die drei- und sechswertigen Verbindungen sind im Boden stabil. Unbelastete Böden haben Chromgehalte zwischen 5 und 100 mg/kg. Der regionale Clarke des Erzgebirges beträgt 52 mg/kg (Totalgehalte). Chrom wird über die Metallurgie und Cr-verarbeitenden Industrien (Farben, Legierungen, Katalysatoren, Beizen, Poliermittel, Bauindustrie) anthropogen in die Umweltmedien eingetragen. In den Böden kann es durch Düngung (Cr im Thomasphosphat) und Klärschlammaufbringung noch zu einer zusätzlichen Belastung mit Chrom kommen. Die regional unterschiedliche Verteilung des Chroms in den sächsischen Böden resultiert aus der geogenen Spezialisierung der Substrate. Bei der Bodenbildung kommt es i. d. R. zu keiner größeren An- bzw. Abreicherung von Chrom. Die Gehalte der Böden liegen in etwa in der Höhe der Ausgangsgesteine. In den nördlichen bzw. nordwestlichen Landesteilen dominieren in den Böden über weitgehend sandigen Lockergesteinen niedrige Chromgehalte unter 20 mg/kg. Die Böden über sauren Magmatiten und Metamorphiten sowie über den Sandsteinen der Elbtalkreide und den Granodioriten der Lausitz liegen ebenfalls im unteren Gehaltsbereich. Über den stärker lössbeeinflussten Lockersedimenten, den Rotliegend-Sedimenten sowie den Tonschiefern, Phylliten, Glimmerschiefern und Paragneisen des Erzgebirges steigen die Chromgehalte in den Böden auf etwa 30 - 40 mg/kg an. Die höchsten Gehalte ( 100 mg/kg) treten in Sachsen punktuell über basischen Vulkaniten (Basalte, Serpentinite, Gabbros), über den größere Flächen bildenden Diabasen des Vogtlandes und lokal über Cr-haltigen Mineralisationen und Verwitterungsbildungen auf (Ni-Hydrosilikate bei St. Egidien). Serpentinite z. B. können bis zu 2000 mg/kg Chrom (Totalgehalte) enthalten. In den Auenböden treten deutliche Beziehungen zwischen den Chromgehalten und den Gesteinen der jeweiligen Einzugsgebiete auf. Die Auenböden der Weißen Elster, der Mulde und der Elbe (Einzugsgebiet Erzgebirge /Vogtland) führen mittlere bis leicht erhöhte Gehalte. Die Gehalte in den Flussauen der Lausitz sind dagegen deutlich niedriger. Infolge der unterschiedlichen Bindungsformen des Chroms in den Primärsubstraten ist die Umrechnung von Cr-Totalgehalten in Cr-Königswassergehalte (KW) äußerst problematisch. Praktische Erfahrungen bei den Bodenuntersuchungen zeigen, dass die KW-Gehalte von basischen bis ultrabasischen Magmatiten und Metamorphiten gegenüber den Totalgehalten bis zu ca. 50 % niedriger sind. Die geochemische Spezialisierung der basischen Substrate tritt deshalb im Kartenbild nur in abgeschwächter Form in Erscheinung. Die in der Bundes-Bodenschutz- und Altlastenverordnung (BBodSchV) festgelegten Prüfwerte für den Wirkungspfad Boden-Mensch (KW-Gehalte) werden in Sachsen nur punktuell über den o. g. basischen und ultrabasischen Gesteinen überschritten. Im Vogtland kommt es über den Diabasen z. T. flächenhaft zur Überschreitung der Cr-Vorsorgewerte, wobei auf Grund der natürlichen Bindungsform aber keine verstärkte Freisetzung im Boden zu erwarten ist.
technologyComment of cobalt production (GLO): Cobalt, as a co-product of nickel and copper production, is obtained using a wide range of technologies. The initial life cycle stage covers the mining of the ore through underground or open cast methods. The ore is further processed in beneficiation to produce a concentrate and/or raffinate solution. Metal selection and further concentration is initiated in primary extraction, which may involve calcining, smelting, high pressure leaching, and other processes. The final product is obtained through further refining, which may involve processes such as re-leaching, selective solvent / solution extraction, selective precipitation, electrowinning, and other treatments. Transport is reported separately and consists of only the internal movements of materials / intermediates, and not the movement of final product. Due to its intrinsic value, cobalt has a high recycling rate. However, much of this recycling takes place downstream through the recycling of alloy scrap into new alloy, or goes into the cobalt chemical sector as an intermediate requiring additional refinement. Secondary production, ie production from the recycling of cobalt-containing wastes, is considered in this study in so far as it occurs as part of the participating companies’ production. This was shown to be of very limited significance (less than 1% of cobalt inputs). The secondary materials used for producing cobalt are modelled as entering the system free of environmental burden. technologyComment of platinum group metal mine operation, ore with high palladium content (RU): imageUrlTagReplace6250302f-4c86-4605-a56f-03197a7811f2 technologyComment of platinum group metal, extraction and refinery operations (ZA): The ores from the different ore bodies are processed in concentrators where a PGM concentrate is produced with a tailing by product. The PGM base metal concentrate product from the different concentrators processing the different ores are blended during the smelting phase to balance the sulphur content in the final matte product. Smelter operators also carry out toll smelting from third part concentrators. The smelter product is send to the Base metal refinery where the PGMs are separated from the Base Metals. Precious metal refinery is carried out on PGM concentrate from the Base metal refinery to split the PGMs into individual metal products. Water analyses measurements for Anglo Platinum obtained from literature (Slatter et.al, 2009). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” Water share between MC and EC from Mudd (2010). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” technologyComment of processing of nickel-rich materials (GLO): Based on typical current technology. technologyComment of smelting and refining of nickel concentrate, 16% Ni (GLO): Extrapolated from a typical technology for smelting and refining of nickel ore. MINING: 95% of sulphidic nickel ores are mined underground in depths between 200m and 1800m, the ore is transferred to the beneficiation. Widening of the tunnels is mainly done by blasting. The overburden – material, which does not contain PGM-bearing ore – is deposed off-site and is partially refilled into the tunnels. Emissions: The major emissions are due to mineral born pollutants in the effluents. The underground mining operations generate roughly 80 % of the dust emissions from open pit operations, since the major dust sources do not take place underground. Rain percolate through overburden and accounts to metal emissions to groundwater. Waste: Overburden is deposed close to the mine. Acid rock drainage occurs over a long period of time. BENEFICIATION: After mining, the ore is first ground. In a next step it is subjected to gravity concentration to separate the metallic particles from the PGM-bearing minerals. After this first concentration step, flotation is carried out to remove the gangue from the sulphidic minerals. For neutralisation lime is added. In the flotation several organic chemicals are used as collector, frother, activator, depressor and flocculant. Sometimes cyanide is used as depressant for pyrite. Tailings usually are led to tailing heaps or ponds. As a result, nickel concentrates containing 7 - 25% Ni are produced. Emissions: Ore handling and processing produce large amounts of dust, containing PM10 and several metals from the ore itself. Flotation produce effluents containing several organic agents used. Some of these chemicals evaporate and account for VOC emissions to air. Namely xanthates decompose hydrolytically to release carbon disulphide. Tailings effluent contains additional sulphuric acid from acid rock drainage. Waste: Tailings are deposed as piles and in ponds. Acid rock drainage occurs over a long period of time. METALLURGY AND REFINING: There are many different process possibilities to win the metal. The chosen process depends on the composition of the ore, the local costs of energy carrier and the local legislation. Basically two different types can be distinguished: the hydrometallurgical and the pyrometallurgical process, which paired up with the refining processes, make up five major production routes (See Tab.1). All this routes are covered, aggregated according to their market share in 1994. imageUrlTagReplace00ebef53-ae97-400f-a602-7405e896cb76 Pyrometallurgy. The pyrometallurgical treatment of nickel concentrates includes three types of unit operation: roasting, smelting, and converting. In the roasting step sulphur is driven off as sulphur dioxide and part of the iron is oxidised. In smelting, the roaster product is melted with a siliceous flux which combines with the oxidised iron to produce two immiscible phases, a liquid silicate slag which can be discarded, and a solution of molten sulphides which contains the metal values. In the converting operation on the sulphide melt, more sulphur is driven off as sulphur dioxide, and the remaining iron is oxidised and fluxed for removal as silicate slag, leaving a high-grade nickel – copper sulphide matte. In several modern operations the roasting step has been eliminated, and the nickel sulphide concentrate is treated directly in the smelter. Hydrometallurgy: Several hydrometallurgical processes are in commercial operation for the treatment of nickel – copper mattes to produce separate nickel and copper products. In addition, the hydrometal-lurgical process developed by Sherritt Gordon in the early 1950s for the direct treatment of nickel sulphide concentrates, as an alternative to smelting, is still commercially viable and competitive, despite very significant improvements in the economics and energy efficiency of nickel smelting technology. In a typical hydrometallurgical process, the concentrate or matte is first leached in a sulphate or chloride solution to dissolve nickel, cobalt, and some of the copper, while the sulphide is oxidised to insoluble elemental sulphur or soluble sulphate. Frequently, leaching is carried out in a two-stage countercurrent system so that the matte can be used to partially purify the solution, for example, by precipitating copper by cementation. In this way a nickel – copper matte can be treated in a two-stage leach process to produce a copper-free nickel sulphate or nickel chloride solution, and a leach residue enriched in copper. Refining: In many applications, high-purity nickel is essential and Class I nickel products, which include electrolytic cathode, carbonyl powder, and hydrogen-reduced powder, are made by a variety of refining processes. The carbonyl refining process uses the property of nickel to form volatile nickel-carbonyl compounds from which elemental nickel subsides to form granules. Electrolytic nickel refineries treat cast raw nickel anodes in a electrolyte. Under current the anode dissolves and pure nickel deposits on the cathode. This electrorefining process is obsolete because of high energy demand and the necessity of building the crude nickel anode by reduction with coke. It is still practised in Russia. Most refineries recover electrolytic nickel by direct electrowinning from purified solutions produced by the leaching of nickel or nickel – copper mattes. Some companies recover refined nickel powder from purified ammoniacal solution by reduction with hydrogen. Emissions: In all of the metallurgical steps, sulphur dioxide is emitted to air. Recovery of sulphur dioxide is only economic for high concentrated off-gas. Given that In the beneficiation step, considerable amounts of lime are added to the ore for pH-stabilisation, lime forms later flux in the metallurgical step, and decomposes into CO2 to form calcite. Dust carry over from the roasting, smelting and converting processes. Particulate emissions to the air consist of metals and thus are often returned to the leaching process after treatment. Chlorine is used in some leaching stages and is produced during the subsequent electrolysis of chloride solution. The chlorine evolved is collected and re-used in the leach stage. The presence of chlorine in wastewater can lead to the formation of organic chlorine compounds (AOX) if solvents etc. are also present in a mixed wastewater. VOCs can be emitted from the solvent extraction stages. A variety of solvents are used an they contain various complexing agents to form complexes with the desired metal that are soluble in the organic layer. Metals and their compounds and substances in suspension are the main pollutants emitted to water. The metals concerned are Cu, Ni, Co, As and Cr. Other significant substances are chlorides and sulphates. Wastewater from wet gas cleaning (if used) of the different metallurgical stages are the most important sources. The leaching stages are usually operated on a closed circuit and drainage systems, and are therefore regarded as minor sources. In the refining step, the combustion of sulphur leads to emissions of SO2. Nitrogen oxides are produced in significant amounts during acid digestion using nitric acid. Chlorine and HCl can be formed during a number of digestion, electrolytic and purification processes. Chlorine is used extensively in the Miller process and in the dissolution stages using hydrochloric acid and chlorine mixtrues respectively. Dust and metals are generally emitted from incinerators and furnaces. VOC can be emitted from solvent extraction processes, while organic compounds, namely dioxins, can be emitted from smelting stages resulting from the poor combustion of oil and plastic in the feed material. All these emissions are subject to abatement technologies and controlling. Large quantities of effluents contain amounts of metals and organic substances. Waste: Regarding the metallurgical step, several co-products, residues and wastes, which are listed in the European Waste Catalogue, are generated. Some of the process specific residues can be reused or recovered in preliminary process steps (e. g. dross, filter dust) or construction (e. g. cleaned slag). Residues also arise from the treatment of liquid effluents, the main residue being gypsum waste and metal hydroxides from the wastewater neutralisation plant. These residuals have to be disposed, usually in lined ponds. In the refining step, quantities of solid residuals are also generated, which are mostly recycled within the process or sent to other specialists to recover any precious metals. Final residues generally comprise hydroxide filter cakes (ironhydroxide, 60% water, cat I industrial waste). References: Kerfoot D. G. E. (1997) Nickel. In: Ullmann's encyclopedia of industrial chemis-try (ed. Anonymous). 5th edition on CD-ROM Edition. Wiley & Sons, London. technologyComment of smelting and refining of nickel concentrate, 7% Ni (CN): The nickel concentrate (6.78% beneficiated - product of the mining and beneficiation processes) undergoes drying, melting in flash furnace and converting to produce high nickel matte. The nickel matte undergoes grinding-floating separation and is refined through anode plate casting and electrolysis in order to produce electrolytic nickel 99.98% pure. Deng, S. Y., & Gong, X. Z. (2018). Life Cycle Assessment of Nickel Production in China. Materials Science Forum, 913, 1004-1010. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.913.1004 technologyComment of treatment of metal part of electronics scrap, in copper, anode, by electrolytic refining (SE, RoW): Production of cathode copper by electrolytic refining.
This production mix is fully based on the related exploitation of copper ore. technologyComment of copper mine operation and beneficiation, sulfide ore (CA, CL, CN, RU, US, RoW): Based on typical current technology. Mining is done 70% open pit and 30% underground, followed by joint beneficiation of copper and molybdenite trough flotation, where considerable amounts of agents are added. Overburden is disposed separate to sulfidic tailings near the mining site. No dewatering (or other pre-treatment) of the tailings of is assumed as this is considered a treatment activity that occurs only at selective sites and is therefore modelled separately. technologyComment of molybdenite mine operation (GLO): imageUrlTagReplacead2d66f4-3a0d-4ae6-a5ca-e63fd821a4fc Mining. Sulphidic copper ores are mined only 30% underground, the major part is mined in large open cut operations. The ore mined in 1900 in the U.S. had a high content of 3.4% and was mined entirely underground. Open pit mining permits the use of very large equipment. Resulting economies of scale enable the exploitation of lower grade disseminated (porphyry) ores – the ores now mainly mined. The major emissions are due to mineral born pollutants in the effluents. Open cut mining generates large quantities of dust, which contains elevated contents of metals and sulphur. Rain percolates through overburden and accounts to metal emissions to groundwater. Overburden is deposed close to the mine. No overburden is refilled. imageUrlTagReplace47e24476-56f3-4016-9151-88908e3e0072 Beneficiation. After mining, the ore is first ground. In a next step it is subjected to gravity concentration to separate the metal-bearing particles from the unwanted minerals. After this first concentration step, flotation is carried out to remove the gangue from the sulphidic minerals. For neutralisation lime is added. In the flotation several organic chemicals ( such as collectors (xanthate or aerofloat) and frothing reagent (eg. Methyl Isobutyl Carbinol)) are used as collector, frother, activator, depressor and flocculant. Sometimes cyanide is used as depressant for pyrite. Tailings usually are led to tailings heaps or ponds. As a result, copper concentrates containing around 30% Cu are produced. Molybdenite concentrate are further ground and purified. It leaves the process as co-product with a concentration of 90 – 95 % Molybdenum disulphide. The concentrated ore is fed to the metallurgy, which is assumed to be on-site. Ore handling and processing produce large amounts of dust, containing PM10 and several metals from the ore itself. Flotation produces effluents containing several organic agents used. Some of these chemicals evaporate and account for VOC emissions to air. Namely xanthates decompose hydrolytically to release carbon disulphide. Tailings effluent contains additional sulphuric acid from acid rock drainage. Tailings are deposed as piles and in ponds. In the sulphidic tailings occurs acid rock drainage (ARD) over a long period of time. Reserves and resources: Molybdenum and Copper are coexisting in porphyry deposits of the copper-molybdenum type, as molybdenite (MoS2) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). About half of the world-wide produced molybdenum is a co-product of the primary copper industry while for another substantial part copper is the co-product. Hence almost all of the molybdenum is produced in a process similar to the copper primary production. Molybdenum secondary production – mainly from spent petroleum catalysts – is not remarkable, and no secondary production is considered in this study. It's estimated that 30% of the molybdenum is re-used in the form of the molybdenum content steel alloys which are recycled to the foundries. Secondary production of copper from scrap plays an important role. The resources of primary copper are limited, a continuous depletion within 60 years is estimated. Land-based resources of copper are estimated to be 1.6 billion tons , and resources in deep-sea nodules are estimated to be 700 million tons. A detailed overview over the global refinery production and a statistic on US use and production of copper is available in the online version of the USGS “Mineral Commodity Summary”. The world-wide mine estimated reserves by country are listed in Tab. 1. Exploitable reserves of recoverable copper were estimated at about 100 million tons in 1935; new discoveries raised this to 212 million tons in 1960. Reserves grew again sharply to 340 million metric tons (MMT) in 1984, but since then they have declined slowly to 321 MMT in 1990 and 310 MMT in 1994. Estimates vary according to prices and assumptions. Total potential resources have increased somewhat over the same period, from 500 MMT to around 590 MMT. As a matter of interest, cumulative global production of copper between 1970 and 1996 was 216 MMT. With the actual mine production of around 13.5 MMT/a, the reserves would last 36 years and the reserve base 70 years. Reserves of molybdenite in the market economy countries have been estimated in a survey evaluating identified ore bodies, i.e., those which have been explored as well as those which have been exploited. The results indicate the following amounts of recoverable molybdenum: United States, 4100 kt; Chile, 1770 kt; Canada, 928 kt; Mexico, 306 kt; Peru, 288 kt; other countries, 356 kt. Ore bodies producing primarily molybdenum contain 55 % of the reserves identified; only 29 % of these ore bodies were being exploited at the time of the survey (January 1985). Operations producing molybdenum as a byproduct contained the remaining 45 % of reserves and 67 % of them were producing molybdenite. The estimated total recoverable molybdenum from primary and byproduct reserves is listed in Tab. 2. References: Krauss et al. (1999), Sebenik et al. (1997), USGS (2003), Ayres et al. (2002).
technologyComment of chromite ore concentrate production (RoW): Mining is done 21% open pit and 79% underground, followed by a benefication of the ore trough classification. Overburden and tailings are disposed near the mining site. MINING: Chromite ores are usually mined underground. An estimated share of 71% underground mining has been reported for activities in the mine production in 1994. This represents 78% of the total production. Of a surveyed part of 52% of the total world production, 69% of the chromite originated from stratiform deposits. Emissions and waste: The major emissions are due to mineral born pollutants in the effluents. Open cut mining generates large quantities of dust, which contains elevated contents of metals. Rain percolates through overburden and leads to metal emissions to groundwater. Overburden is deposed close to the mine. BENEFICIATION: After mining, the ore is first crushed in several stages with jaw and / or cone crushers, and then subsequently ground with rod and or ball mills and finally screened for classification. In a second step the classified material is subjected to gravity concentration to separate the metal-bearing particles from the unwanted minerals. For this drum separators and de-watering screens for lumps are used and cone separators and a high-gradient magnetic separator for fine material. No flotation is done. The separated gangue is disposed in tailings ponds, the concentrated ore is fed to the metallurgy, which is on-site. Chromite yields vary in a range from 65% to 85%. There's no treatment of wastewater. Emissions and waste: Ore handling and processing produce large amounts of dust, containing PM10 and several metals from the ore itself. Tailings are deposed as piles and in ponds. Since the tailings are not sulphidic, no acid rock drainage (ARD) occurs. In the tailings material the most significant contents are Cr and Ni, which occur as insoluble compounds and are considered not to cause any negative effects. References: Adelhardt W. and Antrekowitsch H. (1998) Stoffmengenflüsse und Energie-bedarf bei der Gewinnung ausgewählter mineralischer Rohstoffe; Teilstudie Chrom. In: Geologisches Jahrbuch, Vol. Sonderhefte SH 3. Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Hannover. ISBN 3-510-95831-4. IPPC (2002) Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC); Draft Refer-ence Document on Best Available Techniques for Management of Tailings and Waste-Rock in Mining Activities. European Commission. Retrieved at 01.03.2003 from http://www.jrc.es/pub/english.cgi/0/733169 technologyComment of chromite ore concentrate production (KZ): Mining is done both open pit and underground, followed by a benefication of the ore trough classification. Overburden and tailings are disposed near the mining site. MINING: Chromite ores are usually mined underground. An estimated share of 93% underground mining has been reported for activities in the mine production in Donskoy mine operation site (leader in chromite ore production in Kazakhstan), while the remaining 7% is open pit (Kaplunov et al. 2018). Emissions and waste: The major emissions are due to mineral born pollutants in the effluents. Open cut mining generates large quantities of dust, which contains elevated contents of metals. Rain percolates through overburden and leads to metal emissions to groundwater. Overburden is deposed close to the mine. BENEFICIATION: After mining, the ore is first crushed in several stages with jaw and / or cone crushers, and then subsequently ground with rod and or ball mills and finally screened for classification. In a second step the classified material is subjected to gravity concentration to separate the metal-bearing particles from the unwanted minerals. For this drum separators and de-watering screens for lumps are used and cone separators and a high-gradient magnetic separator for fine material. No flotation is done. The separated gangue is disposed in tailings ponds, the concentrated ore is fed to the metallurgy, which is on-site. Chromite yields vary in a range from 65% to 85%. There's no treatment of wastewater. Emissions and waste: Ore handling and processing produce large amounts of dust, containing PM10 and several metals from the ore itself. Tailings are deposed as piles and in ponds. Since the tailings are not sulphidic, no acid rock drainage (ARD) occurs. In the tailings material the most significant contents are Cr and Ni, which occur as insoluble compounds and are considered not to cause any negative effects. References: Adelhardt W. and Antrekowitsch H. (1998) Stoffmengenflüsse und Energie-bedarf bei der Gewinnung ausgewählter mineralischer Rohstoffe; Teilstudie Chrom. In: Geologisches Jahrbuch, Vol. Sonderhefte SH 3. Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Hannover. ISBN 3-510-95831-4. IPPC (2002) Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC); Draft Refer-ence Document on Best Available Techniques for Management of Tailings and Waste-Rock in Mining Activities. European Commission. Retrieved at 01.03.2003 from http://www.jrc.es/pub/english.cgi/0/733169 Kaplunov, D., Bekbergenov, D., & Djangulova, G. (2018). Particularities of solving the problem of sustainable development of chromite underground mining at deep horizons by means of combined geotechnology. In E3S Web of Conferences (Vol. 56, p. 01015). EDP Sciences.
technologyComment of cobalt production (GLO): Cobalt, as a co-product of nickel and copper production, is obtained using a wide range of technologies. The initial life cycle stage covers the mining of the ore through underground or open cast methods. The ore is further processed in beneficiation to produce a concentrate and/or raffinate solution. Metal selection and further concentration is initiated in primary extraction, which may involve calcining, smelting, high pressure leaching, and other processes. The final product is obtained through further refining, which may involve processes such as re-leaching, selective solvent / solution extraction, selective precipitation, electrowinning, and other treatments. Transport is reported separately and consists of only the internal movements of materials / intermediates, and not the movement of final product. Due to its intrinsic value, cobalt has a high recycling rate. However, much of this recycling takes place downstream through the recycling of alloy scrap into new alloy, or goes into the cobalt chemical sector as an intermediate requiring additional refinement. Secondary production, ie production from the recycling of cobalt-containing wastes, is considered in this study in so far as it occurs as part of the participating companies’ production. This was shown to be of very limited significance (less than 1% of cobalt inputs). The secondary materials used for producing cobalt are modelled as entering the system free of environmental burden. technologyComment of copper mine operation and beneficiation, sulfide ore (AU, CA, CL, CN, ID, KZ, RU, US, ZM, RoW): Based on typical current technology. Mining is done 70% open pit and 30% underground, followed by joint beneficiation of copper and molybdenite trough flotation, where considerable amounts of agents are added. Overburden is disposed separate to sulfidic tailings near the mining site. No dewatering (or other pre-treatment) of the tailings of is assumed as this is considered a treatment activity that occurs only at selective sites and is therefore modelled separately. technologyComment of gold-silver mine operation and beneficiation (CA-QC): The ore is mined in an underground mine and transported by trucks to the mill for further processing. The ore is then fed into a series of grinding mills where steel balls grind the ore. Then follows the steps of flotation of copper and zinc, concentrate handling, cyanide destruction and backfilling of the tailings, refining of gold by electro-winning and melting in furnace to produce the gold and silver ingots. 20% of the tailings produce are sent underground to be used as backfill; sulfidic tailing is managed on site in tailings ponds. technologyComment of molybdenite mine operation (GLO): imageUrlTagReplacead2d66f4-3a0d-4ae6-a5ca-e63fd821a4fc Mining. Sulphidic copper ores are mined only 30% underground, the major part is mined in large open cut operations. The ore mined in 1900 in the U.S. had a high content of 3.4% and was mined entirely underground. Open pit mining permits the use of very large equipment. Resulting economies of scale enable the exploitation of lower grade disseminated (porphyry) ores – the ores now mainly mined. The major emissions are due to mineral born pollutants in the effluents. Open cut mining generates large quantities of dust, which contains elevated contents of metals and sulphur. Rain percolates through overburden and accounts to metal emissions to groundwater. Overburden is deposed close to the mine. No overburden is refilled. imageUrlTagReplace47e24476-56f3-4016-9151-88908e3e0072 Beneficiation. After mining, the ore is first ground. In a next step it is subjected to gravity concentration to separate the metal-bearing particles from the unwanted minerals. After this first concentration step, flotation is carried out to remove the gangue from the sulphidic minerals. For neutralisation lime is added. In the flotation several organic chemicals ( such as collectors (xanthate or aerofloat) and frothing reagent (eg. Methyl Isobutyl Carbinol)) are used as collector, frother, activator, depressor and flocculant. Sometimes cyanide is used as depressant for pyrite. Tailings usually are led to tailings heaps or ponds. As a result, copper concentrates containing around 30% Cu are produced. Molybdenite concentrate are further ground and purified. It leaves the process as co-product with a concentration of 90 – 95 % Molybdenum disulphide. The concentrated ore is fed to the metallurgy, which is assumed to be on-site. Ore handling and processing produce large amounts of dust, containing PM10 and several metals from the ore itself. Flotation produces effluents containing several organic agents used. Some of these chemicals evaporate and account for VOC emissions to air. Namely xanthates decompose hydrolytically to release carbon disulphide. Tailings effluent contains additional sulphuric acid from acid rock drainage. Tailings are deposed as piles and in ponds. In the sulphidic tailings occurs acid rock drainage (ARD) over a long period of time. Reserves and resources: Molybdenum and Copper are coexisting in porphyry deposits of the copper-molybdenum type, as molybdenite (MoS2) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). About half of the world-wide produced molybdenum is a co-product of the primary copper industry while for another substantial part copper is the co-product. Hence almost all of the molybdenum is produced in a process similar to the copper primary production. Molybdenum secondary production – mainly from spent petroleum catalysts – is not remarkable, and no secondary production is considered in this study. It's estimated that 30% of the molybdenum is re-used in the form of the molybdenum content steel alloys which are recycled to the foundries. Secondary production of copper from scrap plays an important role. The resources of primary copper are limited, a continuous depletion within 60 years is estimated. Land-based resources of copper are estimated to be 1.6 billion tons , and resources in deep-sea nodules are estimated to be 700 million tons. A detailed overview over the global refinery production and a statistic on US use and production of copper is available in the online version of the USGS “Mineral Commodity Summary”. The world-wide mine estimated reserves by country are listed in Tab. 1. Exploitable reserves of recoverable copper were estimated at about 100 million tons in 1935; new discoveries raised this to 212 million tons in 1960. Reserves grew again sharply to 340 million metric tons (MMT) in 1984, but since then they have declined slowly to 321 MMT in 1990 and 310 MMT in 1994. Estimates vary according to prices and assumptions. Total potential resources have increased somewhat over the same period, from 500 MMT to around 590 MMT. As a matter of interest, cumulative global production of copper between 1970 and 1996 was 216 MMT. With the actual mine production of around 13.5 MMT/a, the reserves would last 36 years and the reserve base 70 years. Reserves of molybdenite in the market economy countries have been estimated in a survey evaluating identified ore bodies, i.e., those which have been explored as well as those which have been exploited. The results indicate the following amounts of recoverable molybdenum: United States, 4100 kt; Chile, 1770 kt; Canada, 928 kt; Mexico, 306 kt; Peru, 288 kt; other countries, 356 kt. Ore bodies producing primarily molybdenum contain 55 % of the reserves identified; only 29 % of these ore bodies were being exploited at the time of the survey (January 1985). Operations producing molybdenum as a byproduct contained the remaining 45 % of reserves and 67 % of them were producing molybdenite. The estimated total recoverable molybdenum from primary and byproduct reserves is listed in Tab. 2. References: Krauss et al. (1999), Sebenik et al. (1997), USGS (2003), Ayres et al. (2002). technologyComment of primary zinc production from concentrate (RoW): The technological representativeness of this dataset is considered to be high as smelting methods for zinc are consistent in all regions. Refined zinc produced pyro-metallurgically represents less than 5% of global zinc production and less than 2% of this dataset. Electrometallurgical Smelting The main unit processes for electrometallurgical zinc smelting are roasting, leaching, purification, electrolysis, and melting. In both electrometallurgical and pyro-metallurgical zinc production routes, the first step is to remove the sulfur from the concentrate. Roasting or sintering achieves this. The concentrate is heated in a furnace with operating temperature above 900 °C (exothermic, autogenous process) to convert the zinc sulfide to calcine (zinc oxide). Simultaneously, sulfur reacts with oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide, which is subsequently converted to sulfuric acid in acid plants, usually located with zinc-smelting facilities. During the leaching process, the calcine is dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid solution (re-circulated back from the electrolysis cells) to produce aqueous zinc sulfate solution. The iron impurities dissolve as well and are precipitated out as jarosite or goethite in the presence of calcine and possibly ammonia. Jarosite and goethite are usually disposed of in tailing ponds. Adding zinc dust to the zinc sulfate solution facilitates purification. The purification of leachate leads to precipitation of cadmium, copper, and cobalt as metals. In electrolysis, the purified solution is electrolyzed between lead alloy anodes and aluminum cathodes. The high-purity zinc deposited on aluminum cathodes is stripped off, dried, melted, and cast into SHG zinc ingots (99.99 % zinc). Pyro-metallurgical Smelting The pyro-metallurgical smelting process is based on the reduction of zinc and lead oxides into metal with carbon in an imperial smelting furnace. The sinter, along with pre-heated coke, is charged from the top of the furnace and injected from below with pre-heated air. This ensures that temperature in the center of the furnace remains in the range of 1000-1500 °C. The coke is converted to carbon monoxide, and zinc and lead oxides are reduced to metallic zinc and lead. The liquid lead bullion is collected at the bottom of the furnace along with other metal impurities (copper, silver, and gold). Zinc in vapor form is collected from the top of the furnace along with other gases. Zinc vapor is then condensed into liquid zinc. The lead and cadmium impurities in zinc bullion are removed through a distillation process. The imperial smelting process is an energy-intensive process and produces zinc of lower purity than the electrometallurgical process. technologyComment of smelting and refining of nickel concentrate, 16% Ni (GLO): Extrapolated from a typical technology for smelting and refining of nickel ore. MINING: 95% of sulphidic nickel ores are mined underground in depths between 200m and 1800m, the ore is transferred to the beneficiation. Widening of the tunnels is mainly done by blasting. The overburden – material, which does not contain PGM-bearing ore – is deposed off-site and is partially refilled into the tunnels. Emissions: The major emissions are due to mineral born pollutants in the effluents. The underground mining operations generate roughly 80 % of the dust emissions from open pit operations, since the major dust sources do not take place underground. Rain percolate through overburden and accounts to metal emissions to groundwater. Waste: Overburden is deposed close to the mine. Acid rock drainage occurs over a long period of time. BENEFICIATION: After mining, the ore is first ground. In a next step it is subjected to gravity concentration to separate the metallic particles from the PGM-bearing minerals. After this first concentration step, flotation is carried out to remove the gangue from the sulphidic minerals. For neutralisation lime is added. In the flotation several organic chemicals are used as collector, frother, activator, depressor and flocculant. Sometimes cyanide is used as depressant for pyrite. Tailings usually are led to tailing heaps or ponds. As a result, nickel concentrates containing 7 - 25% Ni are produced. Emissions: Ore handling and processing produce large amounts of dust, containing PM10 and several metals from the ore itself. Flotation produce effluents containing several organic agents used. Some of these chemicals evaporate and account for VOC emissions to air. Namely xanthates decompose hydrolytically to release carbon disulphide. Tailings effluent contains additional sulphuric acid from acid rock drainage. Waste: Tailings are deposed as piles and in ponds. Acid rock drainage occurs over a long period of time. METALLURGY AND REFINING: There are many different process possibilities to win the metal. The chosen process depends on the composition of the ore, the local costs of energy carrier and the local legislation. Basically two different types can be distinguished: the hydrometallurgical and the pyrometallurgical process, which paired up with the refining processes, make up five major production routes (See Tab.1). All this routes are covered, aggregated according to their market share in 1994. imageUrlTagReplace00ebef53-ae97-400f-a602-7405e896cb76 Pyrometallurgy. The pyrometallurgical treatment of nickel concentrates includes three types of unit operation: roasting, smelting, and converting. In the roasting step sulphur is driven off as sulphur dioxide and part of the iron is oxidised. In smelting, the roaster product is melted with a siliceous flux which combines with the oxidised iron to produce two immiscible phases, a liquid silicate slag which can be discarded, and a solution of molten sulphides which contains the metal values. In the converting operation on the sulphide melt, more sulphur is driven off as sulphur dioxide, and the remaining iron is oxidised and fluxed for removal as silicate slag, leaving a high-grade nickel – copper sulphide matte. In several modern operations the roasting step has been eliminated, and the nickel sulphide concentrate is treated directly in the smelter. Hydrometallurgy: Several hydrometallurgical processes are in commercial operation for the treatment of nickel – copper mattes to produce separate nickel and copper products. In addition, the hydrometal-lurgical process developed by Sherritt Gordon in the early 1950s for the direct treatment of nickel sulphide concentrates, as an alternative to smelting, is still commercially viable and competitive, despite very significant improvements in the economics and energy efficiency of nickel smelting technology. In a typical hydrometallurgical process, the concentrate or matte is first leached in a sulphate or chloride solution to dissolve nickel, cobalt, and some of the copper, while the sulphide is oxidised to insoluble elemental sulphur or soluble sulphate. Frequently, leaching is carried out in a two-stage countercurrent system so that the matte can be used to partially purify the solution, for example, by precipitating copper by cementation. In this way a nickel – copper matte can be treated in a two-stage leach process to produce a copper-free nickel sulphate or nickel chloride solution, and a leach residue enriched in copper. Refining: In many applications, high-purity nickel is essential and Class I nickel products, which include electrolytic cathode, carbonyl powder, and hydrogen-reduced powder, are made by a variety of refining processes. The carbonyl refining process uses the property of nickel to form volatile nickel-carbonyl compounds from which elemental nickel subsides to form granules. Electrolytic nickel refineries treat cast raw nickel anodes in a electrolyte. Under current the anode dissolves and pure nickel deposits on the cathode. This electrorefining process is obsolete because of high energy demand and the necessity of building the crude nickel anode by reduction with coke. It is still practised in Russia. Most refineries recover electrolytic nickel by direct electrowinning from purified solutions produced by the leaching of nickel or nickel – copper mattes. Some companies recover refined nickel powder from purified ammoniacal solution by reduction with hydrogen. Emissions: In all of the metallurgical steps, sulphur dioxide is emitted to air. Recovery of sulphur dioxide is only economic for high concentrated off-gas. Given that In the beneficiation step, considerable amounts of lime are added to the ore for pH-stabilisation, lime forms later flux in the metallurgical step, and decomposes into CO2 to form calcite. Dust carry over from the roasting, smelting and converting processes. Particulate emissions to the air consist of metals and thus are often returned to the leaching process after treatment. Chlorine is used in some leaching stages and is produced during the subsequent electrolysis of chloride solution. The chlorine evolved is collected and re-used in the leach stage. The presence of chlorine in wastewater can lead to the formation of organic chlorine compounds (AOX) if solvents etc. are also present in a mixed wastewater. VOCs can be emitted from the solvent extraction stages. A variety of solvents are used an they contain various complexing agents to form complexes with the desired metal that are soluble in the organic layer. Metals and their compounds and substances in suspension are the main pollutants emitted to water. The metals concerned are Cu, Ni, Co, As and Cr. Other significant substances are chlorides and sulphates. Wastewater from wet gas cleaning (if used) of the different metallurgical stages are the most important sources. The leaching stages are usually operated on a closed circuit and drainage systems, and are therefore regarded as minor sources. In the refining step, the combustion of sulphur leads to emissions of SO2. Nitrogen oxides are produced in significant amounts during acid digestion using nitric acid. Chlorine and HCl can be formed during a number of digestion, electrolytic and purification processes. Chlorine is used extensively in the Miller process and in the dissolution stages using hydrochloric acid and chlorine mixtrues respectively. Dust and metals are generally emitted from incinerators and furnaces. VOC can be emitted from solvent extraction processes, while organic compounds, namely dioxins, can be emitted from smelting stages resulting from the poor combustion of oil and plastic in the feed material. All these emissions are subject to abatement technologies and controlling. Large quantities of effluents contain amounts of metals and organic substances. Waste: Regarding the metallurgical step, several co-products, residues and wastes, which are listed in the European Waste Catalogue, are generated. Some of the process specific residues can be reused or recovered in preliminary process steps (e. g. dross, filter dust) or construction (e. g. cleaned slag). Residues also arise from the treatment of liquid effluents, the main residue being gypsum waste and metal hydroxides from the wastewater neutralisation plant. These residuals have to be disposed, usually in lined ponds. In the refining step, quantities of solid residuals are also generated, which are mostly recycled within the process or sent to other specialists to recover any precious metals. Final residues generally comprise hydroxide filter cakes (ironhydroxide, 60% water, cat I industrial waste). References: Kerfoot D. G. E. (1997) Nickel. In: Ullmann's encyclopedia of industrial chemis-try (ed. Anonymous). 5th edition on CD-ROM Edition. Wiley & Sons, London. technologyComment of zinc mine operation (GLO): The technological representativeness of this dataset is considered to be high as mining and concentration methods for zinc are consistent in all regions. Mining The mining of zinc ore includes underground and open cast mining processes. Within the global zinc industry, about 80% of zinc ore comes from underground mines and 20% from open pit or combination mines. - Underground Mining: Access is via vertical shafts or inclined roadways. There are usually two access routes (one for mining personnel and materials, and one for the ore) for safety and for ease of ventilation (fresh air comes in one and is then exhausted out of the other). These are permanent structures and therefore require strong roof supports (often including "bolts" into the rock to tie the layers together for strength). Once at the correct depth has been reached, horizontal tunnels are driven to reach the ore deposit. These are often temporary, so the support requirements are less substantial. Transport for personnel and materials can be by train, truck or conveyor belts. The largest share of the consumed fuels is diesel followed by electricity. Other major inputs include explosives and water. - Open Pit Mining: Hard-rock surface mining usually includes drilling, blasting, or a combination of both processes, and then lifting of the broken ore either into trucks or onto conveyors for transportation to the processing plant. This lifting is usually by excavator (electric or hydraulic; with shovel or backhoe configuration) or front-end loader. Benefication (Comminution and Flotation) Zinc ore is milled and mixed with water to recover a fine concentrate by gravity and elutriation techniques, creating a slurry. The separation process of the metal from the slurry is realized through the addition of various floatation chemicals.
Represents average European technology; furnace with 4th hole and secondary metallurgy
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