Ergebnisse der Teilschritte bei der Ausweisung eutrophierte Gebiete (Stand: 05/2022) des Landes NRW nach § 13a Düngeverordnung (DüV 2020). Die Tabelle enthält die Ergebnisse der Teilauswertungen zur Phosphat-Bewertung, Biologie-Bewertung und zu den signifikanten Nährstoffeinträgen gemäß AVV GeA. Enthalten sind jene OFWK, die alle Kriterien zur Ausweisung als eutrophiertes Gebiet erfüllen (für Informationen zur Vorgehensweise s. Dokument „Erläuterungen Eutrophierte Gebiete NRW (12_2022)“). Für die Phosphat- und Biologie-Bewertung ist jeweils die herangezogene WRRL-Messstelle angegeben, deren Ergebnisse ausschlaggebend für die Ausweisung waren. Die Messstellen sind auch im Geodatensatz „GLDE-Ausweisungsmessnetz-eutrophierte-Gebiete-NRW_ETRS25832_Shape.zip“ enthalten. Teilweise wurden für die Phosphat- und Biologie-Bewertung unterschiedliche Messstellen herangezogen, wenn dies aus fachlicher Sicht notwendig und sinnvoll war. Für Phosphat ist jeweils angegeben, ob bei der Ausweisung die Ergebnisse für Orthophosphat-Phosphor oder für den Ersatzparameter Gesamtphosphat-Phosphor herangezogen wurden. Bei der Biologie-Bewertung sind die Bewertungen für alle zu untersuchenden biologischen Qualitätskomponenten angegeben. Dabei ist immer mindestens eine mit „mäßig“ oder schlechter bewertet. In den letzten Spalten der Tabelle sind die Ergebnisse zum signifikanten Nährstoffeintrag angegeben, der aus der MEPhos-Modellierung (https://www.flussgebiete.nrw. de/growa-nrw-2021-4994) hervorgeht. Dabei geht es sowohl um den Anteil der landwirtschaftlichen P-Einträge am Gesamteintrag, der hier mindestens 20 % beträgt, als auch um die Höhe der landwirtschaftlichen P-Einträge, die bei Überschreitung des Ökoregion-Vergleichswertes (s. letzte Spalte) ebenfalls ein Kriterium für die Ausweisung eines OFWK-Einzugsgebietes als eutrophiertes Gebiet darstellt. Bei den OFWK, die in der Spalte „Gewässertyp“ als Talsperren-Oberlieger gekennzeichnet sind, wurden für Phosphat und Biologie die Ergebnisse der unterhalb liegenden Talsperre herangezogen (s. Schritt 6 in „Erläuterungen Eutrophierte Gebiete NRW (12_2022)“
Messstellen der Oberflächenwasserkörper zur Ausweisung der eutrophierten Gebiete des Landes NRW nach §13a Düngeverordnung. WRRL-Messstellen an Oberflächengewässern zur Ausweisung der eutrophierten Gebiete des Landes NRW nach §13a Düngeverordnung. Der Datensatz enthält alle Messstellen des WRRL-Messnetzes, die zur Ausweisung der eutrophierten Gebiete hinsichtlich Phosphat- und Biologie-Bewertung herangezogen wurden. Alle ausweisungsrelevanten Messstellen sind hinsichtlich ihrer Eignung für das WRRL-Monitoring überprüft worden. Für das WRRL-Monitoring nicht geeignete Messstellen wurden ausgesondert und dementsprechend hier auch nicht berücksichtigt (Kenntnisstand 05/2022). Für die Aktualisierung der eutrophierten Gebiete im Dezember 2022 wurden keine Änderungen am Ausweisungsmessnetz vorgenommen, weshalb dieses im Gegensatz zu den eutrophierten Gebieten und den darin liegenden Feldblöcken noch den Stand 05/2022 behält.
Das digitale Landschaftsmodell beschreibt die topographischen Objekte der Landschaft und das Relief der Erdoberfläche im Vektorformat. Die Objekte werden einer bestimmten Objektart zugeordnet und mit ihrer räumliche Lage, ihrem geometrischen Typ, den beschreibenden Attributen und Beziehungen zu anderen Objekten (Relationen) definiert. Jedes Objekt besitzt deutschlandweit eine eindeutige Identifikationsnummer (Identifikator). Die räumliche Lage wird für das Basis-DLM maßstabs- und abbildungsunabhängig im Koordinatensystem der Landesvermessung angegeben. Welche Objektarten das DLM beinhaltet und wie die Objekte zu bilden sind, ist im ATKIS-Objektartenkatalog (ATKIS-OK online) festgelegt.Der Informationsumfang des Basis-DLM orientiert sich am Inhalt der topographischen Karte 1:25.000, er weist jedoch eine höhere Lagegenauigkeit (angestrebt sind ± 3m) für die wichtigsten punkt- und linienförmigen Objekte auf. Die Erfassung der Objektarten und Attribute erfolgt in drei aufeinander folgenden Realisierungsstufen, die im ATKIS-OK ausgewiesen sind. Das ATKIS-Basis-DLM steht in Form von WFS-Diensten und Datensätzen im Downloadcenter der HVBG (www.gds.hessen.de) zur Verfügung. HLBG
Sowohl im Bereich energetischer als auch nicht-energetischer Rohstoffe stieg die Nachfrage in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten kontinuierlich an. Gerade in den letzten Jahren kam daher die Diskussion auf, ob nicht in absehbarer Zeit strukturelle Versorgungs- bzw. Verfügbarkeitsengpässe entstehen könnten. Dies wird sehr kontrovers diskutiert, wobei die Positionen vor allem im Bereich Erdöl sehr stark schwanken. Im folgenden Kapitel wird eine Analyse hinsichtlich der Versorgungssituation energetischer wie nicht-energetischer Rohstoffe vorgenommen. Diskutiert werden Erdöl, Erdgas, Kohle sowie Kernbrennstoffe einerseits und Eisen und Stahl, Chrom, Nickel, Kobalt, Aluminium, Magnesium, Kupfer, Platin und Platinmetalle, Industrieminerale, Borsalze, Phosphat sowie Zirkonium und Zirkoniumoixd andererseits. Veröffentlicht in Texte | 22/2011.
Umweltrisiken sind die Versorgungsrisiken der Zukunft Die Verfügbarkeit von Rohstoffen wird nicht allein durch technisch-geologische, wirtschaftliche und politische Aspekte beeinflusst. Auch die Umweltrisiken des Bergbaus haben einen realen Einfluss darauf. Mit der vom Umweltbundesamt entwickelten ÖkoRess-Bewertungsmethode liegt nun erstmals ein Methodenvorschlag vor, mit dem Unternehmen, zivilgesellschaftliche Gruppen und Behörden ökologische Gefährdungspotentiale von Rohstoffen und Bergbauprojekten bewerten und ökologisch kritische Rohstoffe identifizieren können. In Industrieländern mit rohstoffintensiven Fertigungsindustrien wie Deutschland werden die Forderungen nach transparenten Rohstofflieferketten und mehr unternehmerischer Verantwortung immer stärker. Der Bergbau ist nicht mehr der blinde Fleck in den globalen Lieferketten. Gleichzeitig gibt es am anderen Ende der globalen Wertschöpfungsketten zunehmend sozial-ökologische Konflikte und Proteste gegen den Bergbau. Der globale Bergbausektor setzt sich zunehmend anspruchsvolle freiwillige Umweltstandards und das Bestreben der Rohstoffförderländer, den Nutzen des Bergbaus für die Entwicklung zu maximieren und die negativen Auswirkungen zu minimieren, nimmt zu. Diese Entwicklung hat Auswirkungen auf globale Rohstoffmärkte, denn nicht allein technische, wirtschaftliche und politische Aspekte beeinflussen die Verfügbarkeit von Rohstoffen: Auch die Verfügbarkeit von Wasser, Energie, Land und nicht zuletzt die gesellschaftliche Akzeptanz für die negativen Umweltauswirkungen sind knapper werdende Ressourcen mit einem realen Einfluss. Durch den Trend zu steigenden Umweltstandards im Bergbau ist mittelfristig mit steigenden Rohstoffpreisen durch höhere Produktionskosten und einer Verknappung des „ökologisch verfügbaren“ Rohstoffangebots zu rechnen. Ein aktuelles Beispiel ist der Anstieg des Nickelpreises in Folge der Schließung von 20 Bergwerken auf den Philippinen aufgrund von Umweltproblemen. Die seit 2008 entbrannte Diskussion um die Kritikalität von Rohstoffen war eine Reaktion auf unerwartet hohe Preisanstiege bei einzelnen Rohstoffen. Es wuchs die Sorge, Versorgungsrisiken könnten in naher Zukunft zu Preisanstiegen und Versorgungsengpässen führen. Zu den bislang als kritisch identifizierten Rohstoffen zählen z.B. die Seltenen Erden, Indium, Niob oder die Platingruppenmetalle. Umweltaspekten wurde in den bisherigen Studien zur Kritikalität allerdings trotz ihrer zunehmenden Relevanz nicht ausreichend Rechnung getragen. Rohstoffe sind ökologisch kritisch, wenn sie ein hohes Umweltgefährdungspotential aufweisen und gleichzeitig von hoher wirtschaftlicher Bedeutung sind. In einem Forschungsprojekt (ÖkoRess I) im Auftrag des Umweltbundesamtes wurde nun durch ein Forschungskonsortium, bestehend aus Öko-Institut, ifeu-Institut und projekt consult, eine Methode zur Bewertung der Umweltgefährdungspotenziale bei der bergbaulichen Gewinnung von Rohstoffen entwickelt. Dazu wurde zunächst ein standortbezogenes Bewertungsmodell erarbeitet und darauf aufbauend ein rohstoffbezogenes Bewertungsmodell abgeleitet. Im laufenden Folgevorhaben ÖkoRess II (Auftragnehmer von ÖkoRess I plus Adelphi-Consult) wird die Methode weiterentwickelt und auf ca. 50 bergbaulich gewonnene Rohstoffe angewendet. Die Ergebnisse stehen Ende 2018 fest. Wie auch die „konventionelle“ Kritikalität ist die ökologische Kritikalität vor allem ein Ruf nach mehr Aufmerksamkeit. Das Umweltbundesamt stellt mit der rohstoffbezogenen ÖkoRess-Bewertungsmethode für ökologische Gefährdungspotentiale des Bergbaus einen Kompass zur Verfügung. Unternehmen, zivilgesellschaftliche Gruppen aber auch Regierungsorganisationen können damit die aus Umweltsicht prioritären Rohstoffe und rohstoffspezifische Problemlagen identifizieren und entsprechend handeln. Zum Beispiel werden Unternehmen befähigt, im Rahmen eines nachhaltigen Lieferkettenmanagements die richtigen Fragen an ihre Lieferanten zu stellen: Welche Umweltstandards werden angewendet um zu verhindern, dass sich die ermittelten Umweltgefährdungspotentiale zu realen Umweltbelastungen entwickeln?
technologyComment of platinum group metal mine operation, ore with high palladium content (RU): imageUrlTagReplace6250302f-4c86-4605-a56f-03197a7811f2 technologyComment of platinum group metal, extraction and refinery operations (ZA): The ores from the different ore bodies are processed in concentrators where a PGM concentrate is produced with a tailing by product. The PGM base metal concentrate product from the different concentrators processing the different ores are blended during the smelting phase to balance the sulphur content in the final matte product. Smelter operators also carry out toll smelting from third part concentrators. The smelter product is send to the Base metal refinery where the PGMs are separated from the Base Metals. Precious metal refinery is carried out on PGM concentrate from the Base metal refinery to split the PGMs into individual metal products. Water analyses measurements for Anglo Platinum obtained from literature (Slatter et.al, 2009). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” Water share between MC and EC from Mudd (2010). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” technologyComment of treatment of automobile catalyst (RoW): After collection and transportation to the intermediary dealer, the scrap is ground in a mill. The resulting material is fed to specialised refineries. The metallurgical step consists of an arc-furnace. Same refining process as in primary production assumed (selective precipitation) technologyComment of treatment of automobile catalyst (RER): The production process consists of three steps: Collection, Beneficiation and Refining. COLLECTION: Spoiled automotive catalysts are bought by specialised enterprises from different origins. Part of it originates from scrap dealer recycling end-of-life cars. Further more during the cars operating phase, defective catalysts are exchanged in garages. The third sources is the production waste, i. e. defective catalysts which do not reach market. In most cases, there are fix agreements between the different supplier and the intermediary trade. Although the trade with PGM containing scrap is risky. Motor car manufacturer built up their own internal recycling systems with their contractor garages and gained access to exchanged catalysts. Emissions: Emissions during collection are gases from transportation and dust from dismantling. Also in this step the combustion leads to emissions of SO2. No serious water emissions are reported. BENEFICIATION: The catalysts are dismantled and then sold to refining companies. Refineries too have long-term contracts with the intermediary trade. Emissions: Emissions during beneficiation are gases from transportation and dust from dismantling. Also in this step the combustion leads to emissions of SO2. No serious water emissions are reported. REFINING: The scrap first is shredded and then pyrometallurgicaly processed: The scrap is smelted in an electric arc furnace, and the ceramic wafer is slagged. The PGMs are concentrated in the collector metal, usually copper. Low-content PGM scrap is often smelted together with other non-ferrous metal matte. This is cheap, but effects a high loss in PGM. The collector matte from the furnace then is treated hydrometallurgically by re-precipitation. In this step usually production scrap from other industries (glass, chemical laboratories) is joined. The overall PGM-yield is 98 % for platinum and 85 % for rhodium. Emissions: Dust and metals are generally emitted from incinerators and furnaces. VOC can be emitted from solvent extraction processes, while organic compounds, namely dioxins, can be emitted from smelting stages resulting from the poor combustion of oil and plastic in the feed material. All these emissions are subject to abatement technologies and controlling. Effluents from refining contain considerable amounts of metals and organic substances. Waste: Solid residues from pyrometallurgical step are usually re-used in copper facilities, final residues generally comprise hydroxide filter cakes. References: Hagelücken C. (2001b) Die Märkte der Katalysatormetalle Platin, Palladium und Rhodium. In: Autoabgaskatalysatoren, Vol. 612. pp. 95-115. Expert Verlag, Renningen. Online-Version under: http://www.dmc-2.de/pmc_eng/Veroeffentlichungen_2/Die%20M%C3%A4rkte%20der%20Katalysatormetalle%20Pt%20Pd%20Rh.pdf.
technologyComment of cobalt production (GLO): Cobalt, as a co-product of nickel and copper production, is obtained using a wide range of technologies. The initial life cycle stage covers the mining of the ore through underground or open cast methods. The ore is further processed in beneficiation to produce a concentrate and/or raffinate solution. Metal selection and further concentration is initiated in primary extraction, which may involve calcining, smelting, high pressure leaching, and other processes. The final product is obtained through further refining, which may involve processes such as re-leaching, selective solvent / solution extraction, selective precipitation, electrowinning, and other treatments. Transport is reported separately and consists of only the internal movements of materials / intermediates, and not the movement of final product. Due to its intrinsic value, cobalt has a high recycling rate. However, much of this recycling takes place downstream through the recycling of alloy scrap into new alloy, or goes into the cobalt chemical sector as an intermediate requiring additional refinement. Secondary production, ie production from the recycling of cobalt-containing wastes, is considered in this study in so far as it occurs as part of the participating companies’ production. This was shown to be of very limited significance (less than 1% of cobalt inputs). The secondary materials used for producing cobalt are modelled as entering the system free of environmental burden. technologyComment of platinum group metal mine operation, ore with high palladium content (RU): imageUrlTagReplace6250302f-4c86-4605-a56f-03197a7811f2 technologyComment of platinum group metal, extraction and refinery operations (ZA): The ores from the different ore bodies are processed in concentrators where a PGM concentrate is produced with a tailing by product. The PGM base metal concentrate product from the different concentrators processing the different ores are blended during the smelting phase to balance the sulphur content in the final matte product. Smelter operators also carry out toll smelting from third part concentrators. The smelter product is send to the Base metal refinery where the PGMs are separated from the Base Metals. Precious metal refinery is carried out on PGM concentrate from the Base metal refinery to split the PGMs into individual metal products. Water analyses measurements for Anglo Platinum obtained from literature (Slatter et.al, 2009). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” Water share between MC and EC from Mudd (2010). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” technologyComment of processing of nickel-rich materials (GLO): Based on typical current technology. technologyComment of smelting and refining of nickel concentrate, 16% Ni (GLO): Extrapolated from a typical technology for smelting and refining of nickel ore. MINING: 95% of sulphidic nickel ores are mined underground in depths between 200m and 1800m, the ore is transferred to the beneficiation. Widening of the tunnels is mainly done by blasting. The overburden – material, which does not contain PGM-bearing ore – is deposed off-site and is partially refilled into the tunnels. Emissions: The major emissions are due to mineral born pollutants in the effluents. The underground mining operations generate roughly 80 % of the dust emissions from open pit operations, since the major dust sources do not take place underground. Rain percolate through overburden and accounts to metal emissions to groundwater. Waste: Overburden is deposed close to the mine. Acid rock drainage occurs over a long period of time. BENEFICIATION: After mining, the ore is first ground. In a next step it is subjected to gravity concentration to separate the metallic particles from the PGM-bearing minerals. After this first concentration step, flotation is carried out to remove the gangue from the sulphidic minerals. For neutralisation lime is added. In the flotation several organic chemicals are used as collector, frother, activator, depressor and flocculant. Sometimes cyanide is used as depressant for pyrite. Tailings usually are led to tailing heaps or ponds. As a result, nickel concentrates containing 7 - 25% Ni are produced. Emissions: Ore handling and processing produce large amounts of dust, containing PM10 and several metals from the ore itself. Flotation produce effluents containing several organic agents used. Some of these chemicals evaporate and account for VOC emissions to air. Namely xanthates decompose hydrolytically to release carbon disulphide. Tailings effluent contains additional sulphuric acid from acid rock drainage. Waste: Tailings are deposed as piles and in ponds. Acid rock drainage occurs over a long period of time. METALLURGY AND REFINING: There are many different process possibilities to win the metal. The chosen process depends on the composition of the ore, the local costs of energy carrier and the local legislation. Basically two different types can be distinguished: the hydrometallurgical and the pyrometallurgical process, which paired up with the refining processes, make up five major production routes (See Tab.1). All this routes are covered, aggregated according to their market share in 1994. imageUrlTagReplace00ebef53-ae97-400f-a602-7405e896cb76 Pyrometallurgy. The pyrometallurgical treatment of nickel concentrates includes three types of unit operation: roasting, smelting, and converting. In the roasting step sulphur is driven off as sulphur dioxide and part of the iron is oxidised. In smelting, the roaster product is melted with a siliceous flux which combines with the oxidised iron to produce two immiscible phases, a liquid silicate slag which can be discarded, and a solution of molten sulphides which contains the metal values. In the converting operation on the sulphide melt, more sulphur is driven off as sulphur dioxide, and the remaining iron is oxidised and fluxed for removal as silicate slag, leaving a high-grade nickel – copper sulphide matte. In several modern operations the roasting step has been eliminated, and the nickel sulphide concentrate is treated directly in the smelter. Hydrometallurgy: Several hydrometallurgical processes are in commercial operation for the treatment of nickel – copper mattes to produce separate nickel and copper products. In addition, the hydrometal-lurgical process developed by Sherritt Gordon in the early 1950s for the direct treatment of nickel sulphide concentrates, as an alternative to smelting, is still commercially viable and competitive, despite very significant improvements in the economics and energy efficiency of nickel smelting technology. In a typical hydrometallurgical process, the concentrate or matte is first leached in a sulphate or chloride solution to dissolve nickel, cobalt, and some of the copper, while the sulphide is oxidised to insoluble elemental sulphur or soluble sulphate. Frequently, leaching is carried out in a two-stage countercurrent system so that the matte can be used to partially purify the solution, for example, by precipitating copper by cementation. In this way a nickel – copper matte can be treated in a two-stage leach process to produce a copper-free nickel sulphate or nickel chloride solution, and a leach residue enriched in copper. Refining: In many applications, high-purity nickel is essential and Class I nickel products, which include electrolytic cathode, carbonyl powder, and hydrogen-reduced powder, are made by a variety of refining processes. The carbonyl refining process uses the property of nickel to form volatile nickel-carbonyl compounds from which elemental nickel subsides to form granules. Electrolytic nickel refineries treat cast raw nickel anodes in a electrolyte. Under current the anode dissolves and pure nickel deposits on the cathode. This electrorefining process is obsolete because of high energy demand and the necessity of building the crude nickel anode by reduction with coke. It is still practised in Russia. Most refineries recover electrolytic nickel by direct electrowinning from purified solutions produced by the leaching of nickel or nickel – copper mattes. Some companies recover refined nickel powder from purified ammoniacal solution by reduction with hydrogen. Emissions: In all of the metallurgical steps, sulphur dioxide is emitted to air. Recovery of sulphur dioxide is only economic for high concentrated off-gas. Given that In the beneficiation step, considerable amounts of lime are added to the ore for pH-stabilisation, lime forms later flux in the metallurgical step, and decomposes into CO2 to form calcite. Dust carry over from the roasting, smelting and converting processes. Particulate emissions to the air consist of metals and thus are often returned to the leaching process after treatment. Chlorine is used in some leaching stages and is produced during the subsequent electrolysis of chloride solution. The chlorine evolved is collected and re-used in the leach stage. The presence of chlorine in wastewater can lead to the formation of organic chlorine compounds (AOX) if solvents etc. are also present in a mixed wastewater. VOCs can be emitted from the solvent extraction stages. A variety of solvents are used an they contain various complexing agents to form complexes with the desired metal that are soluble in the organic layer. Metals and their compounds and substances in suspension are the main pollutants emitted to water. The metals concerned are Cu, Ni, Co, As and Cr. Other significant substances are chlorides and sulphates. Wastewater from wet gas cleaning (if used) of the different metallurgical stages are the most important sources. The leaching stages are usually operated on a closed circuit and drainage systems, and are therefore regarded as minor sources. In the refining step, the combustion of sulphur leads to emissions of SO2. Nitrogen oxides are produced in significant amounts during acid digestion using nitric acid. Chlorine and HCl can be formed during a number of digestion, electrolytic and purification processes. Chlorine is used extensively in the Miller process and in the dissolution stages using hydrochloric acid and chlorine mixtrues respectively. Dust and metals are generally emitted from incinerators and furnaces. VOC can be emitted from solvent extraction processes, while organic compounds, namely dioxins, can be emitted from smelting stages resulting from the poor combustion of oil and plastic in the feed material. All these emissions are subject to abatement technologies and controlling. Large quantities of effluents contain amounts of metals and organic substances. Waste: Regarding the metallurgical step, several co-products, residues and wastes, which are listed in the European Waste Catalogue, are generated. Some of the process specific residues can be reused or recovered in preliminary process steps (e. g. dross, filter dust) or construction (e. g. cleaned slag). Residues also arise from the treatment of liquid effluents, the main residue being gypsum waste and metal hydroxides from the wastewater neutralisation plant. These residuals have to be disposed, usually in lined ponds. In the refining step, quantities of solid residuals are also generated, which are mostly recycled within the process or sent to other specialists to recover any precious metals. Final residues generally comprise hydroxide filter cakes (ironhydroxide, 60% water, cat I industrial waste). References: Kerfoot D. G. E. (1997) Nickel. In: Ullmann's encyclopedia of industrial chemis-try (ed. Anonymous). 5th edition on CD-ROM Edition. Wiley & Sons, London. technologyComment of smelting and refining of nickel concentrate, 7% Ni (CN): The nickel concentrate (6.78% beneficiated - product of the mining and beneficiation processes) undergoes drying, melting in flash furnace and converting to produce high nickel matte. The nickel matte undergoes grinding-floating separation and is refined through anode plate casting and electrolysis in order to produce electrolytic nickel 99.98% pure. Deng, S. Y., & Gong, X. Z. (2018). Life Cycle Assessment of Nickel Production in China. Materials Science Forum, 913, 1004-1010. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.913.1004 technologyComment of treatment of metal part of electronics scrap, in copper, anode, by electrolytic refining (SE, RoW): Production of cathode copper by electrolytic refining.
technologyComment of platinum group metal mine operation, ore with high palladium content (RU): imageUrlTagReplace6250302f-4c86-4605-a56f-03197a7811f2 technologyComment of platinum group metal, extraction and refinery operations (ZA): The ores from the different ore bodies are processed in concentrators where a PGM concentrate is produced with a tailing by product. The PGM base metal concentrate product from the different concentrators processing the different ores are blended during the smelting phase to balance the sulphur content in the final matte product. Smelter operators also carry out toll smelting from third part concentrators. The smelter product is send to the Base metal refinery where the PGMs are separated from the Base Metals. Precious metal refinery is carried out on PGM concentrate from the Base metal refinery to split the PGMs into individual metal products. Water analyses measurements for Anglo Platinum obtained from literature (Slatter et.al, 2009). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” Water share between MC and EC from Mudd (2010). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” technologyComment of treatment of automobile catalyst (RoW): After collection and transportation to the intermediary dealer, the scrap is ground in a mill. The resulting material is fed to specialised refineries. The metallurgical step consists of an arc-furnace. Same refining process as in primary production assumed (selective precipitation) technologyComment of treatment of automobile catalyst (RER): The production process consists of three steps: Collection, Beneficiation and Refining. COLLECTION: Spoiled automotive catalysts are bought by specialised enterprises from different origins. Part of it originates from scrap dealer recycling end-of-life cars. Further more during the cars operating phase, defective catalysts are exchanged in garages. The third sources is the production waste, i. e. defective catalysts which do not reach market. In most cases, there are fix agreements between the different supplier and the intermediary trade. Although the trade with PGM containing scrap is risky. Motor car manufacturer built up their own internal recycling systems with their contractor garages and gained access to exchanged catalysts. Emissions: Emissions during collection are gases from transportation and dust from dismantling. Also in this step the combustion leads to emissions of SO2. No serious water emissions are reported. BENEFICIATION: The catalysts are dismantled and then sold to refining companies. Refineries too have long-term contracts with the intermediary trade. Emissions: Emissions during beneficiation are gases from transportation and dust from dismantling. Also in this step the combustion leads to emissions of SO2. No serious water emissions are reported. REFINING: The scrap first is shredded and then pyrometallurgicaly processed: The scrap is smelted in an electric arc furnace, and the ceramic wafer is slagged. The PGMs are concentrated in the collector metal, usually copper. Low-content PGM scrap is often smelted together with other non-ferrous metal matte. This is cheap, but effects a high loss in PGM. The collector matte from the furnace then is treated hydrometallurgically by re-precipitation. In this step usually production scrap from other industries (glass, chemical laboratories) is joined. The overall PGM-yield is 98 % for platinum and 85 % for rhodium. Emissions: Dust and metals are generally emitted from incinerators and furnaces. VOC can be emitted from solvent extraction processes, while organic compounds, namely dioxins, can be emitted from smelting stages resulting from the poor combustion of oil and plastic in the feed material. All these emissions are subject to abatement technologies and controlling. Effluents from refining contain considerable amounts of metals and organic substances. Waste: Solid residues from pyrometallurgical step are usually re-used in copper facilities, final residues generally comprise hydroxide filter cakes. References: Hagelücken C. (2001b) Die Märkte der Katalysatormetalle Platin, Palladium und Rhodium. In: Autoabgaskatalysatoren, Vol. 612. pp. 95-115. Expert Verlag, Renningen. Online-Version under: http://www.dmc-2.de/pmc_eng/Veroeffentlichungen_2/Die%20M%C3%A4rkte%20der%20Katalysatormetalle%20Pt%20Pd%20Rh.pdf.
technologyComment of aluminium alloy production, AlLi (CA-QC, RoW): No comment present technologyComment of aluminium alloy production, Metallic Matrix Composite (CA-QC, RoW): No comment present technologyComment of cobalt production (GLO): Cobalt, as a co-product of nickel and copper production, is obtained using a wide range of technologies. The initial life cycle stage covers the mining of the ore through underground or open cast methods. The ore is further processed in beneficiation to produce a concentrate and/or raffinate solution. Metal selection and further concentration is initiated in primary extraction, which may involve calcining, smelting, high pressure leaching, and other processes. The final product is obtained through further refining, which may involve processes such as re-leaching, selective solvent / solution extraction, selective precipitation, electrowinning, and other treatments. Transport is reported separately and consists of only the internal movements of materials / intermediates, and not the movement of final product. Due to its intrinsic value, cobalt has a high recycling rate. However, much of this recycling takes place downstream through the recycling of alloy scrap into new alloy, or goes into the cobalt chemical sector as an intermediate requiring additional refinement. Secondary production, ie production from the recycling of cobalt-containing wastes, is considered in this study in so far as it occurs as part of the participating companies’ production. This was shown to be of very limited significance (less than 1% of cobalt inputs). The secondary materials used for producing cobalt are modelled as entering the system free of environmental burden. technologyComment of copper production, cathode, solvent extraction and electrowinning process (GLO): Oxide ores and supergene sulphide ores (i.e. ores not containing iron) can be recovered most easily by hydro-metallurgical techniques, such as SX-EW. The general steps of mining and refining are identical to those of copper mine operation and primary copper production, respectively. The difference lies in that the beneficiation and smelting stages are by-passed and substituted with a leaching stage followed by cementation or electro-winning. technologyComment of electrorefining of copper, anode (GLO): Based on typical current technology. technologyComment of gold mine operation and refining (SE): OPEN PIT MINING: The ore is mined in four steps: drilling, blasting, loading and hauling. In the case of a surface mine, a pattern of holes is drilled in the pit and filled with explosives. The explosives are detonated in order to break up the ground so large shovels or front-end loaders can load it into haul trucks. ORE AND WASTE HAULAGE: The haul trucks transport the ore to various areas for processing. The grade and type of ore determine the processing method used. Higher-grade ores are taken to a mill. Lower grade ores are taken to leach pads. Some ores may be stockpiled for later processing. HEAP LEACHING: The ore is crushed or placed directly on lined leach pads where a dilute cyanide solution is applied to the surface of the heap. The solution percolates down through the ore, where it leaches the gold and flows to a central collection location. The solution is recovered in this closed system. The pregnant leach solution is fed to electrowinning cells and undergoes the same steps as described below from Electro-winning. ORE PROCESSING: Milling: The ore is fed into a series of grinding mills where steel balls grind the ore to a fine slurry or powder. Oxidization and leaching: Some types of ore require further processing before gold is recovered. In this case, the slurry is pressure-oxidized in an autoclave before going to the leaching tanks or a dry powder is fed through a roaster in which it is oxidized using heat before being sent to the leaching tanks as a slurry. The slurry is thickened and runs through a series of leaching tanks. The gold in the slurry adheres to carbon in the tanks. Stripping: The carbon is then moved into a stripping vessel where the gold is removed from the carbon by pumping a hot caustic solution through the carbon. The carbon is later recycled. Electro-winning: The gold-bearing solution is pumped through electro-winning cells or through a zinc precipitation circuit where the gold is recovered from the solution. Smelting: The gold is then melted in a furnace at about 1’064°C and poured into moulds, creating doré bars. Doré bars are unrefined gold bullion bars containing between 60% and 95% gold. References: Newmont (2004) How gold is mined. Newmont. Retrieved from http://www.newmont.com/en/gold/howmined/index.asp technologyComment of platinum group metal mine operation, ore with high palladium content (RU): imageUrlTagReplace6250302f-4c86-4605-a56f-03197a7811f2 technologyComment of platinum group metal, extraction and refinery operations (ZA): The ores from the different ore bodies are processed in concentrators where a PGM concentrate is produced with a tailing by product. The PGM base metal concentrate product from the different concentrators processing the different ores are blended during the smelting phase to balance the sulphur content in the final matte product. Smelter operators also carry out toll smelting from third part concentrators. The smelter product is send to the Base metal refinery where the PGMs are separated from the Base Metals. Precious metal refinery is carried out on PGM concentrate from the Base metal refinery to split the PGMs into individual metal products. Water analyses measurements for Anglo Platinum obtained from literature (Slatter et.al, 2009). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” Water share between MC and EC from Mudd (2010). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” technologyComment of primary zinc production from concentrate (RoW): The technological representativeness of this dataset is considered to be high as smelting methods for zinc are consistent in all regions. Refined zinc produced pyro-metallurgically represents less than 5% of global zinc production and less than 2% of this dataset. Electrometallurgical Smelting The main unit processes for electrometallurgical zinc smelting are roasting, leaching, purification, electrolysis, and melting. In both electrometallurgical and pyro-metallurgical zinc production routes, the first step is to remove the sulfur from the concentrate. Roasting or sintering achieves this. The concentrate is heated in a furnace with operating temperature above 900 °C (exothermic, autogenous process) to convert the zinc sulfide to calcine (zinc oxide). Simultaneously, sulfur reacts with oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide, which is subsequently converted to sulfuric acid in acid plants, usually located with zinc-smelting facilities. During the leaching process, the calcine is dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid solution (re-circulated back from the electrolysis cells) to produce aqueous zinc sulfate solution. The iron impurities dissolve as well and are precipitated out as jarosite or goethite in the presence of calcine and possibly ammonia. Jarosite and goethite are usually disposed of in tailing ponds. Adding zinc dust to the zinc sulfate solution facilitates purification. The purification of leachate leads to precipitation of cadmium, copper, and cobalt as metals. In electrolysis, the purified solution is electrolyzed between lead alloy anodes and aluminum cathodes. The high-purity zinc deposited on aluminum cathodes is stripped off, dried, melted, and cast into SHG zinc ingots (99.99 % zinc). Pyro-metallurgical Smelting The pyro-metallurgical smelting process is based on the reduction of zinc and lead oxides into metal with carbon in an imperial smelting furnace. The sinter, along with pre-heated coke, is charged from the top of the furnace and injected from below with pre-heated air. This ensures that temperature in the center of the furnace remains in the range of 1000-1500 °C. The coke is converted to carbon monoxide, and zinc and lead oxides are reduced to metallic zinc and lead. The liquid lead bullion is collected at the bottom of the furnace along with other metal impurities (copper, silver, and gold). Zinc in vapor form is collected from the top of the furnace along with other gases. Zinc vapor is then condensed into liquid zinc. The lead and cadmium impurities in zinc bullion are removed through a distillation process. The imperial smelting process is an energy-intensive process and produces zinc of lower purity than the electrometallurgical process. technologyComment of treatment of copper cake (GLO): 'The ore is pre-treated, reduced and refined according to the country specific mix of process alternatives: reverberatory furnace 23.7%; flash smelting furnaces 60.7%; other 6.2%.; SX-EW 9.4%. An overall abatement for sulphur dioxide of 45.4% was estimated.' as cited in original dataset. technologyComment of treatment of copper scrap by electrolytic refining (RoW): In three different stages different types of copper scrap and 10% of the feed of blister copper are refined to copper cathodes. Waste water is led to a communal treatment plant. technologyComment of treatment of copper scrap by electrolytic refining (RER): Secondary copper consists of various types of scrap. Prompt scrap is directly reused in foundries and is not further processed. Old scrap has to be treated in a secondary copper smelter, where a variety of metal values are recuperated. Depending on the chemical composition, the raw materials of a secondary copper smelter are processed in different types of furnaces, including: - blast furnaces (up to 30% of Cu in the average charge), - converters (about 75% Cu), and - anode furnaces (about 95% Cu). A scheme of the process considered is given in Fig 1. The blast furnace metal (“black copper”) is treated in a converter; then, the converter metal is refined in an anode furnace. In each step additional raw material with corresponding copper content is added. In the blast furnace, a mixture of raw materials, iron scrap, limestone and sand as well as coke is charged at the top. Air that can be enriched with oxygen is blown through the tuyeres. The coke is burnt and the charge materials are smelted under reducing conditions. Black copper and slag are discharged from tapholes. The converters used in primary copper smelting, working on mattes containing iron sulphide, generate surplus heat and additions of scrap copper are often used to control the temperature. The converter provides a convenient and cheap form of scrap treatment, but often with only moderately efficient gas cleaning. Alternatively, hydrometallurgical treatment of scrap, using ammonia leaching, yields to solutions which can be reduced by hydrogen to obtain copper powder. Alternatively, these solutions can be treated by solvent extraction to produce feed to a copper-winning cell. Converter copper is charged together with copper raw materials in anode furnace operation. For smelting the charge, oil or coal dust is used, mainly in reverberatory furnaces. After smelting, air is blown on the bath to oxidise the remaining impurities. Leaded brasses, containing as much as 3% of lead, are widely used in various applications and recycling of their scrap waste is an important activity. Such scrap contains usually much swarf and turnings coated with lubricant and cutting oils. Copper-containing cables and motors contain plastic or rubber insulants, varnishes, and lacquers. In such cases, scrap needs pre-treatment to remove these non-metallic materials. The smaller sizes of scrap can be pre-treated thermally in a rotary kiln provided with an after-burner to consume smoke and oil vapours (so-called Intal process). Emissions and waste: Elevated levels of halogenated organic compounds may arise, such as TCDD. Slags are usually used in construction. Waste water is led to a communal treatment plant. References: EEA, 1999. imageUrlTagReplacef2b602ec-dc47-48e3-88a7-ab8ec727bd33 technologyComment of treatment of metal part of electronics scrap, in copper, anode, by electrolytic refining (SE, RoW): Production of cathode copper by electrolytic refining. technologyComment of treatment of non-Fe-Co-metals, from used Li-ion battery, hydrometallurgical processing (GLO): The technique SX-EW is used mainly for oxide ores and supergene sulphide ores (i.e. ores not containing iron). It is assumed to be used for the treatment of the non-Fe-Co-metals fraction. The process includes a leaching stage followed by cementation or electro-winning. A general description of the process steps is given below. In the dump leaching step, copper is recovered from large quantities (millions of tonnes) of strip oxide ores with a very low grade. Dilute sulphuric acid is trickled through the material. Once the process starts it continues naturally if water and air are circulated through the heap. The time required is typically measured in years. Sulphur dioxide is emitted during such operations. Soluble copper is then recovered from drainage tunnels and ponds. Copper recovery rates vary from 30% to 70%. Cconsiderable amounts of sulphuric acid and leaching agents emit into water and air. No figures are currently available on the dimension of such emissions. After the solvent-solvent extraction, considerable amounts of leaching residues remain, which consist of undissolved minerals and the remainders of leaching chemicals. In the solution cleaning step occur precipitation of impurities and filtration or selective enrichment of copper by solvent extraction or ion exchange. The solvent extraction process comprises two steps: selective extraction of copper from an aqueous leach solution into an organic phase (extraction circuit) and the re-extraction or stripping of the copper into dilute sulphuric acid to give a solution suitable for electro winning (stripping circuit). In the separation step occurs precipitation of copper metal or copper compounds such as Cu2O, CuS, CuCl, CuI, CuCN, or CuSO4 • 5 H2O (crystallisation) Waste: Like in the pyrometallurgical step, considerable quantities of solid residuals are generated, which are mostly recycled within the process or sent to other specialists to recover any precious metals. Final residues generally comprise hydroxide filter cakes (iron hydroxide, 60% water, cat I industrial waste). technologyComment of treatment of non-Fe-Co-metals, from used Li-ion battery, pyrometallurgical processing (GLO): Based on technology that treats anode slime by pressure leaching and top blown rotary converter. technologyComment of treatment of used cable (GLO): Shredder, followed by a modern grinding machine with current separation technology
technologyComment of platinum group metal mine operation, ore with high palladium content (RU): imageUrlTagReplace6250302f-4c86-4605-a56f-03197a7811f2 technologyComment of platinum group metal, extraction and refinery operations (ZA): The ores from the different ore bodies are processed in concentrators where a PGM concentrate is produced with a tailing by product. The PGM base metal concentrate product from the different concentrators processing the different ores are blended during the smelting phase to balance the sulphur content in the final matte product. Smelter operators also carry out toll smelting from third part concentrators. The smelter product is send to the Base metal refinery where the PGMs are separated from the Base Metals. Precious metal refinery is carried out on PGM concentrate from the Base metal refinery to split the PGMs into individual metal products. Water analyses measurements for Anglo Platinum obtained from literature (Slatter et.al, 2009). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” Water share between MC and EC from Mudd (2010). Mudd, G., 2010. Platinum group metals: a unique case study in the sustainability of mineral resources, in: The 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition “Boom or Bust.” technologyComment of treatment of automobile catalyst (RoW): After collection and transportation to the intermediary dealer, the scrap is ground in a mill. The resulting material is fed to specialised refineries. The metallurgical step consists of an arc-furnace. Same refining process as in primary production assumed (selective precipitation) technologyComment of treatment of automobile catalyst (RER): The production process consists of three steps: Collection, Beneficiation and Refining. COLLECTION: Spoiled automotive catalysts are bought by specialised enterprises from different origins. Part of it originates from scrap dealer recycling end-of-life cars. Further more during the cars operating phase, defective catalysts are exchanged in garages. The third sources is the production waste, i. e. defective catalysts which do not reach market. In most cases, there are fix agreements between the different supplier and the intermediary trade. Although the trade with PGM containing scrap is risky. Motor car manufacturer built up their own internal recycling systems with their contractor garages and gained access to exchanged catalysts. Emissions: Emissions during collection are gases from transportation and dust from dismantling. Also in this step the combustion leads to emissions of SO2. No serious water emissions are reported. BENEFICIATION: The catalysts are dismantled and then sold to refining companies. Refineries too have long-term contracts with the intermediary trade. Emissions: Emissions during beneficiation are gases from transportation and dust from dismantling. Also in this step the combustion leads to emissions of SO2. No serious water emissions are reported. REFINING: The scrap first is shredded and then pyrometallurgicaly processed: The scrap is smelted in an electric arc furnace, and the ceramic wafer is slagged. The PGMs are concentrated in the collector metal, usually copper. Low-content PGM scrap is often smelted together with other non-ferrous metal matte. This is cheap, but effects a high loss in PGM. The collector matte from the furnace then is treated hydrometallurgically by re-precipitation. In this step usually production scrap from other industries (glass, chemical laboratories) is joined. The overall PGM-yield is 98 % for platinum and 85 % for rhodium. Emissions: Dust and metals are generally emitted from incinerators and furnaces. VOC can be emitted from solvent extraction processes, while organic compounds, namely dioxins, can be emitted from smelting stages resulting from the poor combustion of oil and plastic in the feed material. All these emissions are subject to abatement technologies and controlling. Effluents from refining contain considerable amounts of metals and organic substances. Waste: Solid residues from pyrometallurgical step are usually re-used in copper facilities, final residues generally comprise hydroxide filter cakes. References: Hagelücken C. (2001b) Die Märkte der Katalysatormetalle Platin, Palladium und Rhodium. In: Autoabgaskatalysatoren, Vol. 612. pp. 95-115. Expert Verlag, Renningen. Online-Version under: http://www.dmc-2.de/pmc_eng/Veroeffentlichungen_2/Die%20M%C3%A4rkte%20der%20Katalysatormetalle%20Pt%20Pd%20Rh.pdf. technologyComment of treatment of precious metal from electronics scrap, in anode slime, precious metal extraction (SE, RoW): Anode slime treatment by pressure leaching and top blown rotary converter. Production of Silver by Möbius Electrolysis, Gold by Wohlwill electrolysis, Palladium to further processing
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